Therapists in Portland, ME

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Photo of Jennifer L Moss, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Jennifer L Moss
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, PMH-C
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04102
Waitlist for new clients
Are you struggling to manage anxiety related to pregnancy, depression connected to your changing life roles, past or recent trauma, or relationship changes due to any of these concerns? Hope & Harmony is here to help. I provide professional knowledge in these areas along with others to include: parenting, relationship challenges, substance use & addiction, codependency, and self-care and compassion. Life's daily struggles can sometimes feel overwhelming and unmanageable. During these times, it can feel reassuring to connect with a certified and licensed professional who can help you put things into perspective.
Are you struggling to manage anxiety related to pregnancy, depression connected to your changing life roles, past or recent trauma, or relationship changes due to any of these concerns? Hope & Harmony is here to help. I provide professional knowledge in these areas along with others to include: parenting, relationship challenges, substance use & addiction, codependency, and self-care and compassion. Life's daily struggles can sometimes feel overwhelming and unmanageable. During these times, it can feel reassuring to connect with a certified and licensed professional who can help you put things into perspective.
(207) 517-2889 View (207) 517-2889
Photo of Victoria Libby, Psychologist in Portland, ME
Victoria Libby
Psychologist, MSEd, PsyD
Verified Verified
5 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04101
Waitlist for new clients
To me, the bedrock of meaningful treatment is a feeling of comfort and ease with your therapist. I consider it a great privilege to assist people in their growth and healing. Giving to people in this way is an honor and a joy.
To me, the bedrock of meaningful treatment is a feeling of comfort and ease with your therapist. I consider it a great privilege to assist people in their growth and healing. Giving to people in this way is an honor and a joy.
(207) 656-5763 View (207) 656-5763
Photo of Chelsey Vest, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Chelsey Vest
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101  (Online Only)
I am dedicated to working with adult clients to promote personal, mental, professional, and overall wellness. The diverse populations with which I have worked have given me experience with a variety of different challenges: depression and anxiety, LGBTQ+ identities, sexuality concerns, mood disorders, trauma, ADHD, ADD, and many others. I use an eclectic approach in therapy which often includes solution-focused therapy, mindfulness, and cognitive behavioral theory. The target is always to work together to find methods/approaches that work best for you and steer you toward your therapeutic goals.
I am dedicated to working with adult clients to promote personal, mental, professional, and overall wellness. The diverse populations with which I have worked have given me experience with a variety of different challenges: depression and anxiety, LGBTQ+ identities, sexuality concerns, mood disorders, trauma, ADHD, ADD, and many others. I use an eclectic approach in therapy which often includes solution-focused therapy, mindfulness, and cognitive behavioral theory. The target is always to work together to find methods/approaches that work best for you and steer you toward your therapeutic goals.
(207) 598-4974 View (207) 598-4974
Photo of Kathleen O'Toole, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Kathleen O'Toole
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04101  (Online Only)
Not accepting new clients
Hey there! I'm Kat! I believe that therapy is most effective when rooted in authenticity. New to therapy? Not sure where to start? No problem. I'm all about providing mental health care that's compassionate and free of judgment – it doesn't matter your age, gender, identity, ethnicity, relationship style, or culture; I'm here to help.
Hey there! I'm Kat! I believe that therapy is most effective when rooted in authenticity. New to therapy? Not sure where to start? No problem. I'm all about providing mental health care that's compassionate and free of judgment – it doesn't matter your age, gender, identity, ethnicity, relationship style, or culture; I'm here to help.
(207) 305-4282 View (207) 305-4282
Photo of Mark McCullough, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Mark McCullough
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, PhD, LCSW
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04103
Anxiety, depression, insecurity, low self-esteem, intrusive thoughts, relationship challenges at work, school, or home, shame: these problems can be understood and often overcome through therapy. I provide Psychodynamic Psychotherapy to individuals and couples and help others gain insight into maladaptive patterns of thinking and acting through mutual inquiry and authentic engagement. I specialize in treating depression and anxiety. My style is direct and compassionate.
Anxiety, depression, insecurity, low self-esteem, intrusive thoughts, relationship challenges at work, school, or home, shame: these problems can be understood and often overcome through therapy. I provide Psychodynamic Psychotherapy to individuals and couples and help others gain insight into maladaptive patterns of thinking and acting through mutual inquiry and authentic engagement. I specialize in treating depression and anxiety. My style is direct and compassionate.
(207) 560-0633 View (207) 560-0633
Photo of Caitlin Aiona Smith, Counselor in Portland, ME
Caitlin Aiona Smith
Counselor, MA, LCPC-C
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101  (Online Only)
You are the expert to your own life. The services I offer are tailored to help you best connect with yourself and your own needs. I offer individualized, trauma-informed, and evidenced-based treatment plans to support clients in exploring areas of their life where they feel stuck or stagnant and aid them in developing and achieving meaningful goals for their future.
You are the expert to your own life. The services I offer are tailored to help you best connect with yourself and your own needs. I offer individualized, trauma-informed, and evidenced-based treatment plans to support clients in exploring areas of their life where they feel stuck or stagnant and aid them in developing and achieving meaningful goals for their future.
(207) 489-4969 View (207) 489-4969
Photo of Maria Doering, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Maria Doering
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, LICSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04103
Not accepting new clients
I’m a seasoned professional who helps individuals with a variety of issues as well as providing couples counseling. I enjoy supporting couples through the challenges that come with relationships . I support parents struggling to raise families or caring for aging parents. I help individuals explore identity. I help clients with relationships, trauma, or stress due to major life changes, and more. I enjoy working with people from a variety of cultures and backgrounds.
I’m a seasoned professional who helps individuals with a variety of issues as well as providing couples counseling. I enjoy supporting couples through the challenges that come with relationships . I support parents struggling to raise families or caring for aging parents. I help individuals explore identity. I help clients with relationships, trauma, or stress due to major life changes, and more. I enjoy working with people from a variety of cultures and backgrounds.
(207) 203-6822 View (207) 203-6822
Photo of Teresa Valliere, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Teresa Valliere
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, LADC, CCS
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04103
Not accepting new clients
Life is complicated and despite our best efforts, everyone struggles at times. I can help you find healthy ways of coping, being more effective in your relationships and feeling better overall. I use a combination of approaches that helps you identify small changes that can make a big difference in life functioning. You'll identify your goals and together we'll identify strategies to achieve them whether it is to reduce sadness or fear, reduce reliance upon unhealthy behaviors or substances, improve communication skills, manage conflicts better, grieve losses or make an important life decision.
Life is complicated and despite our best efforts, everyone struggles at times. I can help you find healthy ways of coping, being more effective in your relationships and feeling better overall. I use a combination of approaches that helps you identify small changes that can make a big difference in life functioning. You'll identify your goals and together we'll identify strategies to achieve them whether it is to reduce sadness or fear, reduce reliance upon unhealthy behaviors or substances, improve communication skills, manage conflicts better, grieve losses or make an important life decision.
(207) 358-4393 View (207) 358-4393
Photo of Paula Curran, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Paula Curran
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101
Are you experiencing frustration, feeling upset by an unsatisfying relationship? Do you feel overwhelmed by finances, divorce or stress? How will I handle all these pressures? Do you consider therapy but don't know where to start: how do I choose from the therapists I read about?. If you seek someone who will engage with you, understand that you are doing your best to make sense of the problems confronting you and wants to participate in creating strategies to resolve these problems, please call me to talk about how we might collaborate to create the life you desire.
Are you experiencing frustration, feeling upset by an unsatisfying relationship? Do you feel overwhelmed by finances, divorce or stress? How will I handle all these pressures? Do you consider therapy but don't know where to start: how do I choose from the therapists I read about?. If you seek someone who will engage with you, understand that you are doing your best to make sense of the problems confronting you and wants to participate in creating strategies to resolve these problems, please call me to talk about how we might collaborate to create the life you desire.
(207) 605-8108 View (207) 605-8108
Photo of Rebecca Traub, Art Therapist in Portland, ME
Rebecca Traub
Art Therapist, LCPC, ATR
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101
I am grateful to welcome you to my art therapy and mental health counseling practice. I help clients use creative expression as a way to understand Self. My philosophy is rooted in personal empowerment and identity development through connecting with your own inner wisdom. My approach is holistic, client centered and trauma-informed with a focus on helping you access personal freedom, fulfillment and deep connection to self/others. I understand that the experiences from your past do not define you and I will help you discover the growth opportunities hiding inside the challenges you have faced.
I am grateful to welcome you to my art therapy and mental health counseling practice. I help clients use creative expression as a way to understand Self. My philosophy is rooted in personal empowerment and identity development through connecting with your own inner wisdom. My approach is holistic, client centered and trauma-informed with a focus on helping you access personal freedom, fulfillment and deep connection to self/others. I understand that the experiences from your past do not define you and I will help you discover the growth opportunities hiding inside the challenges you have faced.
(207) 464-2410 View (207) 464-2410
Photo of Healthy Minds Counseling, Inc, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Healthy Minds Counseling, Inc
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, PhD, LCSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04103
I'm Dr. Akamin Nkengaka, a License Clinical Social Worker and a License Advanced Alcohol & Drugs Counselor with 15 years of evidence based clinical experience. I have experience in helping clients with stress and anxiety, coping with addictions, trauma informed care, suicidal ideation, abuse, self-esteem, and relationships. I believe that you are the expert of your story and that you have many strengths that will assist you to overcome negative challenges in your life.
I'm Dr. Akamin Nkengaka, a License Clinical Social Worker and a License Advanced Alcohol & Drugs Counselor with 15 years of evidence based clinical experience. I have experience in helping clients with stress and anxiety, coping with addictions, trauma informed care, suicidal ideation, abuse, self-esteem, and relationships. I believe that you are the expert of your story and that you have many strengths that will assist you to overcome negative challenges in your life.
(207) 598-4958 View (207) 598-4958
Photo of Jenna Nunziato, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Jenna Nunziato
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04103  (Online Only)
None of this is easy. Maybe you're adjusting to a change, like parenting or job loss, and looking to find your identity. Maybe you're becoming aware of a problematic pattern in your life, like constant anxiety, difficulty with relationships, or intense emotions. You don't have to feel overwhelmed by depression, anxiety, shame, or anger any more. Let's talk about it and find some strategies to soothe it now, and stop it from reoccurring. If you're reluctant about therapy, I can reassure you that I'm not here to judge, and want to make it a safe and fun environment.
None of this is easy. Maybe you're adjusting to a change, like parenting or job loss, and looking to find your identity. Maybe you're becoming aware of a problematic pattern in your life, like constant anxiety, difficulty with relationships, or intense emotions. You don't have to feel overwhelmed by depression, anxiety, shame, or anger any more. Let's talk about it and find some strategies to soothe it now, and stop it from reoccurring. If you're reluctant about therapy, I can reassure you that I'm not here to judge, and want to make it a safe and fun environment.
(207) 204-3655 View (207) 204-3655
Photo of Pam Kern, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Pam Kern
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MS, LCSW
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04103
Connection! It is at the heart of being human. I am an experienced therapist providing a supportive environment that is free of judgment to connect and align with your purpose and meaning. I specialize in mental health and well-being in relationship dynamics, either with yourself or with others, work-life and daily living. I was clinically trained at Columbia University. My expertise ranges from traditional psychotherapy in an office setting or telehealth, counseling business executives at Employee Assistance Program, seafarer mental health in shipping, and a mental health counselor at a summer camp.
Connection! It is at the heart of being human. I am an experienced therapist providing a supportive environment that is free of judgment to connect and align with your purpose and meaning. I specialize in mental health and well-being in relationship dynamics, either with yourself or with others, work-life and daily living. I was clinically trained at Columbia University. My expertise ranges from traditional psychotherapy in an office setting or telehealth, counseling business executives at Employee Assistance Program, seafarer mental health in shipping, and a mental health counselor at a summer camp.
(207) 605-8571 View (207) 605-8571
Photo of Tia K Hwang, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Tia K Hwang
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW-R
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04101  (Online Only)
Does perfectionism, obsessive thoughts, or hyper-focus on perceived flaws keep you stuck? Do you (or your child) struggle with your body image, and/or have a negative relationship with food? Maybe you keep it together on the outside but find it hard to stop the inner chaos. Self doubt, feeling like a failure, feeling inadequate, hating yourself or being filled with shame are all indicators that it is time to make a change. I can help you create a plan and feel hope. Most of all I can help heal the pain of past experiences, self doubt/hatred and live authentically.
Does perfectionism, obsessive thoughts, or hyper-focus on perceived flaws keep you stuck? Do you (or your child) struggle with your body image, and/or have a negative relationship with food? Maybe you keep it together on the outside but find it hard to stop the inner chaos. Self doubt, feeling like a failure, feeling inadequate, hating yourself or being filled with shame are all indicators that it is time to make a change. I can help you create a plan and feel hope. Most of all I can help heal the pain of past experiences, self doubt/hatred and live authentically.
(207) 994-8802 View (207) 994-8802
Photo of Caroline Cleary, Pre-Licensed Professional in Portland, ME
Caroline Cleary
Pre-Licensed Professional
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04102
Life is a journey full of a wide array of experiences. Some experiences feed us, test us, motivate us, challenge us, and still others may confuse and discourage us. Asking for help to navigate life’s many varied challenges is a wise and courageous step toward becoming the person you want to be. As a counselor, I seek to create a collaborative, trusting relationship with clients through which to explore, heal, and cope with life’s many surprises.
Life is a journey full of a wide array of experiences. Some experiences feed us, test us, motivate us, challenge us, and still others may confuse and discourage us. Asking for help to navigate life’s many varied challenges is a wise and courageous step toward becoming the person you want to be. As a counselor, I seek to create a collaborative, trusting relationship with clients through which to explore, heal, and cope with life’s many surprises.
(207) 819-8121 View (207) 819-8121
Photo of Top Of The Hill Counseling, Drug & Alcohol Counselor in Portland, ME
Top Of The Hill Counseling
Drug & Alcohol Counselor
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04101
There is little doubt that a sit down with a seasoned counselor is the safest and most dignified approach to the fears and apprehension that come with an understanding that the door to a substance use problem is going to get opened. Top of the Hill was designed to be that place of this initiation. We care to continue to be known as Portland's best known outpatient facility for the delivery of quality treatment for Substance Use Disorders and Substance Use Evaluation services. We are also known to be highly qualified in the counseling of affected others seeking reasonable and dignified intervention strategies for specific problems.
There is little doubt that a sit down with a seasoned counselor is the safest and most dignified approach to the fears and apprehension that come with an understanding that the door to a substance use problem is going to get opened. Top of the Hill was designed to be that place of this initiation. We care to continue to be known as Portland's best known outpatient facility for the delivery of quality treatment for Substance Use Disorders and Substance Use Evaluation services. We are also known to be highly qualified in the counseling of affected others seeking reasonable and dignified intervention strategies for specific problems.
(207) 808-7736 View (207) 808-7736
Photo of Steven Stern, Psychologist in Portland, ME
Steven Stern
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101
Not accepting new clients
I specialize in psychodynamic therapy with adults confronting a wide range of life problems: relationship difficulties, trauma, work-related problems, depression, anxiety, issues of self-esteem, self-acceptance and shame, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of discouragement in pursuing one's life dreams and ambitions. We will work together to understand your unique struggles, their causes, and the roadblocks to change in an accepting atmosphere that encourages open dialogue. My approach combines down-to-earth problem-solving with a complex grasp of the conscious and unconscious, historical and current life factors contributing to each person's struggles.
I specialize in psychodynamic therapy with adults confronting a wide range of life problems: relationship difficulties, trauma, work-related problems, depression, anxiety, issues of self-esteem, self-acceptance and shame, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of discouragement in pursuing one's life dreams and ambitions. We will work together to understand your unique struggles, their causes, and the roadblocks to change in an accepting atmosphere that encourages open dialogue. My approach combines down-to-earth problem-solving with a complex grasp of the conscious and unconscious, historical and current life factors contributing to each person's struggles.
(855) 944-2553 View (855) 944-2553
Photo of PSM Center for Relationships, Psychologist in Portland, ME
PSM Center for Relationships
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04101
Romantic relationships are tricky, if not treacherous. We long to feel important and understood and we expect love and intimacy to last a lifetime. But so often, our love relationships leave us feeling wounded, disillusioned, and discouraged. While there is never a guarantee of safety or security in relationships, there is the real possibility for depth, comfort, connection, and radiant joy. Couples therapy helps us confront the heal the deep wounds, discover new parts of ourselves, and find a safe haven in our relationships. Intensive Couples Therapy is a short-term, in-depth and focused approach to helping couples in distress.
Romantic relationships are tricky, if not treacherous. We long to feel important and understood and we expect love and intimacy to last a lifetime. But so often, our love relationships leave us feeling wounded, disillusioned, and discouraged. While there is never a guarantee of safety or security in relationships, there is the real possibility for depth, comfort, connection, and radiant joy. Couples therapy helps us confront the heal the deep wounds, discover new parts of ourselves, and find a safe haven in our relationships. Intensive Couples Therapy is a short-term, in-depth and focused approach to helping couples in distress.
(207) 218-0198 View (207) 218-0198
Photo of Kathleen Kane, Marriage & Family Therapist in Portland, ME
Kathleen Kane
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Portland, ME 04101  (Online Only)
Waitlist for new clients
I specialize in providing an authentic, dynamic and collaborative environment where clients can safely explore challenges and create goals. I provide couples, family, and individual therapy working mainly from a humanistic approach, with some elements of the psychodynamic perspective. I am also experienced with the treatment of eating disorders.
I specialize in providing an authentic, dynamic and collaborative environment where clients can safely explore challenges and create goals. I provide couples, family, and individual therapy working mainly from a humanistic approach, with some elements of the psychodynamic perspective. I am also experienced with the treatment of eating disorders.
(207) 747-1257 x4 View (207) 747-1257 x4
Photo of Cyl, Healthy Minds Counseling , Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Portland, ME
Cyl, Healthy Minds Counseling
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LICSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Portland, ME 04103  (Online Only)
I received my Master's in Social Work from Western Michigan University, and I am a seasoned professional with several years of experience. My specialty is empowering individuals to evolve into the best version of themselves. As an advocate for mental health, my passion lies in helping adults and seniors gain deeper insights into their lives, and empowering them to take the necessary steps towards achieving their desired direction.
I received my Master's in Social Work from Western Michigan University, and I am a seasoned professional with several years of experience. My specialty is empowering individuals to evolve into the best version of themselves. As an advocate for mental health, my passion lies in helping adults and seniors gain deeper insights into their lives, and empowering them to take the necessary steps towards achieving their desired direction.
(207) 630-2396 View (207) 630-2396

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in Portland, ME

900+

Average cost per session

$135

Therapists in Portland, ME who prioritize treating:

92% Anxiety
86% Depression
75% Relationship Issues
72% Self Esteem
71% Trauma and PTSD
66% Coping Skills
65% Stress

Average years in practice

13 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

61% Anthem | Elevance
57% BlueCross and BlueShield
56% Aetna

How Therapists in Portland, ME see their clients

65% In Person and Online
35% Online Only

Gender breakdown

78% Female
21% Male
1% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in Portland?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.