Therapists in Harrisonburg, VA

Photo of Lauren C Snead, Licensed Professional Counselor, MSEd, LPC
Lauren C Snead
Licensed Professional Counselor, MSEd, LPC
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Accepting New Clients! I am a Licensed Professional Counselor in the state of Virginia and provide individual counseling to adolescents, young adults, and adults. My primary focus is in the treatment of women's issues, anxiety, social anxiety, phase of life issues, ADHD, and issues related to college-aged students. I have experience working with teens and families, postpartum mother's, college-aged students, as well as other therapist. I have worked in Private Practice since 2019.
Accepting New Clients! I am a Licensed Professional Counselor in the state of Virginia and provide individual counseling to adolescents, young adults, and adults. My primary focus is in the treatment of women's issues, anxiety, social anxiety, phase of life issues, ADHD, and issues related to college-aged students. I have experience working with teens and families, postpartum mother's, college-aged students, as well as other therapist. I have worked in Private Practice since 2019.
(540) 302-5636 View (540) 302-5636
Photo of Cedrice Kenney Moyer, Pre-Licensed Professional, MEd
Cedrice Kenney Moyer
Pre-Licensed Professional, MEd
2 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Cedrice is a Resident in Counseling and a License School Counselor with a strong educational background and diverse experience. With over five years of experience in school settings, both group and individual, and more than a year in private practice, Cedrice specializes in areas such as racial identity, anxiety, depression, self-esteem, and trauma. She enjoys working with children and adolescents (elementary, middle & high school), young adults, and adults. Her therapeutic approaches include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, person-centered techniques, multicultural methods, family systems, and other integrative therapy methods.
Cedrice is a Resident in Counseling and a License School Counselor with a strong educational background and diverse experience. With over five years of experience in school settings, both group and individual, and more than a year in private practice, Cedrice specializes in areas such as racial identity, anxiety, depression, self-esteem, and trauma. She enjoys working with children and adolescents (elementary, middle & high school), young adults, and adults. Her therapeutic approaches include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, person-centered techniques, multicultural methods, family systems, and other integrative therapy methods.
(540) 258-4764 View (540) 258-4764
Photo of Shauna Frantz, Licensed Professional Counselor
Shauna Frantz
Licensed Professional Counselor
Online Only
Integrate the seen with the unseen. Understand and work with the root issues. Open into more of who you can be. Allow yourself (or learn to allow yourself) to be cared for and supported.
Integrate the seen with the unseen. Understand and work with the root issues. Open into more of who you can be. Allow yourself (or learn to allow yourself) to be cared for and supported.
(540) 517-7744 View (540) 517-7744
Photo of Kate Corder, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, MEd, LPC
Kate Corder
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, MEd, LPC
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Waitlist for new clients
I specialize in working with children ages 4 and up, using play therapy, attachment therapy, and CBT. I am a former special education teacher who enjoys working with children with special needs, such as ADHD, autism, and learning disabilities. I have experience with adoption, foster care, and ADHD, and love working with foster and adoptive families. I have training in attachment and can provide Circle of Security Informed attachment therapy. Please note: I only offer daytime appointments and cannot accommodate requests for late afternoon, evenings, or weekends.
I specialize in working with children ages 4 and up, using play therapy, attachment therapy, and CBT. I am a former special education teacher who enjoys working with children with special needs, such as ADHD, autism, and learning disabilities. I have experience with adoption, foster care, and ADHD, and love working with foster and adoptive families. I have training in attachment and can provide Circle of Security Informed attachment therapy. Please note: I only offer daytime appointments and cannot accommodate requests for late afternoon, evenings, or weekends.
(540) 426-3118 View (540) 426-3118
Photo of Karen Herrell, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
Karen Herrell
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I'm a Licensed Professional Counselor who works from a person centered, attachment-based and trauma-informed approach to counseling. I have my Bachelor’s in Psychology from James Madison University and my Master's in Mental Health from Eastern Mennonite University. I have experience working with adolescents and adults from a wide variety of experiences and walks of life. In my clinical practice, I focus on working with clients with anxiety, depression, difficult life transitions, grief, trauma, attachment issues, sexual identity, disordered eating, substance abuse, and low self esteem.
I'm a Licensed Professional Counselor who works from a person centered, attachment-based and trauma-informed approach to counseling. I have my Bachelor’s in Psychology from James Madison University and my Master's in Mental Health from Eastern Mennonite University. I have experience working with adolescents and adults from a wide variety of experiences and walks of life. In my clinical practice, I focus on working with clients with anxiety, depression, difficult life transitions, grief, trauma, attachment issues, sexual identity, disordered eating, substance abuse, and low self esteem.
(540) 215-8243 View (540) 215-8243
Photo of Becky Snead, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, EdS, LPC, CSAC
Becky Snead
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, EdS, LPC, CSAC
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Welcome! I provide individual counseling for adults dealing with a wide range of issues, including anxiety and depression, trauma, grief, and identity development. I strive to create a genuine, trusting therapeutic alliance with my clients, where they can freely express themselves without fear of judgment. With extensive training and experience in client-centered and emotion-focused therapies, I offer a safe, warm, empathetic, and non-judgmental environment where clients can explore emotions, gain insight into thoughts and behaviors, and identify strengths to manage life's challenges.
Welcome! I provide individual counseling for adults dealing with a wide range of issues, including anxiety and depression, trauma, grief, and identity development. I strive to create a genuine, trusting therapeutic alliance with my clients, where they can freely express themselves without fear of judgment. With extensive training and experience in client-centered and emotion-focused therapies, I offer a safe, warm, empathetic, and non-judgmental environment where clients can explore emotions, gain insight into thoughts and behaviors, and identify strengths to manage life's challenges.
(540) 625-1404 View (540) 625-1404
Photo of Fabiana Espinal, Resident in Counseling, MA
Fabiana Espinal
Resident in Counseling, MA
2 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I am currently accepting new clients. I understand that it takes considerable courage to ask for help, particularly when it comes to mental health and the stigma surrounding therapy. This means I am deeply committed to making the counseling experience as gentle and meaningful as possible for all my clients. I believe in the power of community and that the relationship between the client and counselor is an extremely important part of the healing process. Therefore, it is a privilege and a priority for me to be worthy of the trust of my clients; my goal is to offer people a judgment-free space that feels safe and genuine.
I am currently accepting new clients. I understand that it takes considerable courage to ask for help, particularly when it comes to mental health and the stigma surrounding therapy. This means I am deeply committed to making the counseling experience as gentle and meaningful as possible for all my clients. I believe in the power of community and that the relationship between the client and counselor is an extremely important part of the healing process. Therefore, it is a privilege and a priority for me to be worthy of the trust of my clients; my goal is to offer people a judgment-free space that feels safe and genuine.
(540) 692-9590 View (540) 692-9590
Photo of Sarah Brown, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, ED.S
Sarah Brown
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, ED.S
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22802
Whether you are new to therapy or seeking a new therapist, reaching out is a big and important first step. Even with all the noise around us, life can feel extremely lonely. You are not alone. Through our work together, my goal is to help you build meaningful connections with parts of yourself you may have suppressed or forgotten, with what you value most, with the people in your life, and with the world around you. I believe it’s through all these different connections that you can accept yourself, find meaning in your life, and fulfill your unique potential.
Whether you are new to therapy or seeking a new therapist, reaching out is a big and important first step. Even with all the noise around us, life can feel extremely lonely. You are not alone. Through our work together, my goal is to help you build meaningful connections with parts of yourself you may have suppressed or forgotten, with what you value most, with the people in your life, and with the world around you. I believe it’s through all these different connections that you can accept yourself, find meaning in your life, and fulfill your unique potential.
(540) 733-7215 View (540) 733-7215
Photo of Charles L. Miller, Psychologist, PsyD, LCP
Charles L. Miller
Psychologist, PsyD, LCP
2 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22802
As a therapist, my aim is to take the time to clearly understand your history, difficulties, strengths, and goals, and then to work together to build a treatment plan tailored to your unique circumstances. I have experience working with adolescents and their families to repair relationships, helping individuals navigate the pitfalls of depression and anxiety, and aiding veterans and others to recover from traumatic experiences that left them lost and overwhelmed. Most recently, I have worked within rural communities to help clients recover from substance abuse and the impacts it has had on their lives.
As a therapist, my aim is to take the time to clearly understand your history, difficulties, strengths, and goals, and then to work together to build a treatment plan tailored to your unique circumstances. I have experience working with adolescents and their families to repair relationships, helping individuals navigate the pitfalls of depression and anxiety, and aiding veterans and others to recover from traumatic experiences that left them lost and overwhelmed. Most recently, I have worked within rural communities to help clients recover from substance abuse and the impacts it has had on their lives.
(540) 778-9640 View (540) 778-9640
Photo of Stephanie L. Morehead, Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Stephanie L. Morehead
Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I work with adults and adolescents who struggle primarily with trauma, anxiety, OCD and other severe mental illnesses. Life can be completely overwhelming and exhausting at times, and I want to be able to arm my clients with the tools they need to work through their challenges and become stronger as a result. I believe that therapy should be engaging, challenging, and fulfilling. Therapy with me will be a safe place for you to discuss and explore your thoughts and feelings. We will work through this together.
I work with adults and adolescents who struggle primarily with trauma, anxiety, OCD and other severe mental illnesses. Life can be completely overwhelming and exhausting at times, and I want to be able to arm my clients with the tools they need to work through their challenges and become stronger as a result. I believe that therapy should be engaging, challenging, and fulfilling. Therapy with me will be a safe place for you to discuss and explore your thoughts and feelings. We will work through this together.
(540) 305-8536 View (540) 305-8536
Photo of Katrina Didot - Aram Counseling & Wellness Center, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Aram Counseling & Wellness Center
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I’m a Licensed Clinical Social Worker with over 30 years of experience supporting individuals, couples, and families through life’s challenges. My work spans hospitals, correctional settings, international adoption, school counseling, and cross-cultural practice abroad. I specialize in couples therapy, adoption-related support, anxiety, depression, and major life transitions. Using CBT, Family Systems, IFS, and solution-focused approaches, I tailor therapy to your unique needs. Fluent in English and Spanish, I offer culturally sensitive care rooted in compassion, connection, and practical tools for growth and renewal.
I’m a Licensed Clinical Social Worker with over 30 years of experience supporting individuals, couples, and families through life’s challenges. My work spans hospitals, correctional settings, international adoption, school counseling, and cross-cultural practice abroad. I specialize in couples therapy, adoption-related support, anxiety, depression, and major life transitions. Using CBT, Family Systems, IFS, and solution-focused approaches, I tailor therapy to your unique needs. Fluent in English and Spanish, I offer culturally sensitive care rooted in compassion, connection, and practical tools for growth and renewal.
(540) 551-7273 View (540) 551-7273
Photo of Rachel Sullivan, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Rachel Sullivan
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I am excited to work with you and learn about your needs. My approach is to work collaboratively with you to bring your goals to reality. I will not tell you what to do, but instead partner with you to find your most authentic choices. I am a licensed clinical social worker, which means my training is not just in mental health, but in how our environments impact and influence us. I have worked in both private practice, community based, and medical settings, with experience in all ages and life stages. I look forward to meeting you!
I am excited to work with you and learn about your needs. My approach is to work collaboratively with you to bring your goals to reality. I will not tell you what to do, but instead partner with you to find your most authentic choices. I am a licensed clinical social worker, which means my training is not just in mental health, but in how our environments impact and influence us. I have worked in both private practice, community based, and medical settings, with experience in all ages and life stages. I look forward to meeting you!
(540) 726-0807 View (540) 726-0807
Photo of Srijana (Sriju) Chhetri Showalter, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Srijana (Sriju) Chhetri Showalter
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22802
Not accepting new clients
At Laurel Counseling, I'm deeply committed to providing holistic therapeutic services to those looking to seek clarity and make meaning in their lives. I use an existential, person-centered approach in my work with clients. I believe that YOU are the expert on your life and that YOU already have the answers for growth and healing within yourself. My role is to be a guide, resource and supportive companion as I walk beside you on your life journey, and help you discover and nurture your inner truth. I have extensive experience working with children, teens, adults and families who have been affected by trauma.
At Laurel Counseling, I'm deeply committed to providing holistic therapeutic services to those looking to seek clarity and make meaning in their lives. I use an existential, person-centered approach in my work with clients. I believe that YOU are the expert on your life and that YOU already have the answers for growth and healing within yourself. My role is to be a guide, resource and supportive companion as I walk beside you on your life journey, and help you discover and nurture your inner truth. I have extensive experience working with children, teens, adults and families who have been affected by trauma.
(540) 328-9476 View (540) 328-9476
Photo of Dana Gutshall Good, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
Dana Gutshall Good
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
My work and passion surround helping others and getting to know a variety of people. I specifically enjoy working with adolescents, teenagers, and supporting their parents along with providing therapy to young adults both women and men. I have had the pleasure to help and to clinically support those in the community and surrounding counties for 19 years. I specialize in supporting college students in boosting self-esteem, and finding confidence, along with learning coping strategies to maintain routine for each semester.
My work and passion surround helping others and getting to know a variety of people. I specifically enjoy working with adolescents, teenagers, and supporting their parents along with providing therapy to young adults both women and men. I have had the pleasure to help and to clinically support those in the community and surrounding counties for 19 years. I specialize in supporting college students in boosting self-esteem, and finding confidence, along with learning coping strategies to maintain routine for each semester.
(540) 269-4732 View (540) 269-4732
Photo of Phil Schulte - Harrisonburg Assessment and Counseling, PLLC, Psychologist, PsyD
Harrisonburg Assessment and Counseling, PLLC
Psychologist, PsyD
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
Welcome! We offer comprehensive psychological testing and counseling services tailored to meet the unique needs of adults, adolescents, and children. Whether you're looking for support in navigating symptoms, needing help with your relationship, or seeking answers through psychological evaluation, we’re here to help with current availability for both testing and therapy services. Our clinicians are trained in up-do-date treatment and evaluation methods, offering in-person and telehealth appointments, including weekend or evening hours. Now featuring a digital library of >40 assessments and iPad administration.
Welcome! We offer comprehensive psychological testing and counseling services tailored to meet the unique needs of adults, adolescents, and children. Whether you're looking for support in navigating symptoms, needing help with your relationship, or seeking answers through psychological evaluation, we’re here to help with current availability for both testing and therapy services. Our clinicians are trained in up-do-date treatment and evaluation methods, offering in-person and telehealth appointments, including weekend or evening hours. Now featuring a digital library of >40 assessments and iPad administration.
(540) 253-1696 View (540) 253-1696
Photo of Sarah Campbell, Licensed Professional Counselor, MS, LPC
Sarah Campbell
Licensed Professional Counselor, MS, LPC
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I work with clients who are struggling with themselves in some way. Perhaps trying to stop anxiety from running away with them. Perhaps trying to find meaning in what is happening to them and how to manage it. Perhaps fighting their body on weight, shape, or food. I want to end that struggle by building tools to discern and meet needs, replace negative and self-critical thoughts, and support healthier, compassionate beliefs about the self and the world around them.
I work with clients who are struggling with themselves in some way. Perhaps trying to stop anxiety from running away with them. Perhaps trying to find meaning in what is happening to them and how to manage it. Perhaps fighting their body on weight, shape, or food. I want to end that struggle by building tools to discern and meet needs, replace negative and self-critical thoughts, and support healthier, compassionate beliefs about the self and the world around them.
(540) 501-6509 View (540) 501-6509
Photo of Jackie Hieber, Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Jackie Hieber
Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
1 Endorsed
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
January 2026 - New Client Opening - You're used to feeling steady, but something's just happened and suddenly you’re not sure how to keep putting one foot in front of the other. You’ve just experienced a sexual assault, trauma or loss, or unexpected change and are trying to learn how to keep going in the aftermath. You feel like you can’t find your sense of self anymore. Life’s put you in a before and after moment: life before this happened, and life after, and you're struggling to figure out what happens in the after. If this sounds like you, I might be the right fit for you. You don’t have to be alone in this.
January 2026 - New Client Opening - You're used to feeling steady, but something's just happened and suddenly you’re not sure how to keep putting one foot in front of the other. You’ve just experienced a sexual assault, trauma or loss, or unexpected change and are trying to learn how to keep going in the aftermath. You feel like you can’t find your sense of self anymore. Life’s put you in a before and after moment: life before this happened, and life after, and you're struggling to figure out what happens in the after. If this sounds like you, I might be the right fit for you. You don’t have to be alone in this.
(540) 787-2353 View (540) 787-2353
Photo of Natalie Realubit, Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Natalie Realubit
Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Online Only
What do your symptoms mean to you? What is your relationship to them, and might it be possible to discover what lies beyond your symptoms?
What do your symptoms mean to you? What is your relationship to them, and might it be possible to discover what lies beyond your symptoms?
(540) 783-6507 View (540) 783-6507
Photo of Charles F. Richards, Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Charles F. Richards
Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Harrisonburg, VA 22801
I enjoy building a relational experience with all of my clients. To me, this is a crucial part of the Therapeutic Experience. I enjoy working with children between the ages of 4-15. I am accepting adults and Couples, who are looking for some support as they try to navigate their journey. I provide a safe and nurturing environment to help Children, adults, and couples navigate life's challenges. I have extensive experience working with children and families, from a variety of backgrounds and developmental stages. Currently, I am accepting new Clients, and have a number of time slots available throughout the week.
I enjoy building a relational experience with all of my clients. To me, this is a crucial part of the Therapeutic Experience. I enjoy working with children between the ages of 4-15. I am accepting adults and Couples, who are looking for some support as they try to navigate their journey. I provide a safe and nurturing environment to help Children, adults, and couples navigate life's challenges. I have extensive experience working with children and families, from a variety of backgrounds and developmental stages. Currently, I am accepting new Clients, and have a number of time slots available throughout the week.
(540) 208-3749 View (540) 208-3749
Photo of Allison Collazo, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
Allison Collazo
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
Online Only
Allison explores a wide array of therapeutic approaches and utilizes each in an intentional way to meet the need of each client. More specifically, Allison values and utilizes psychodynamic, gestalt, and existential theories to guide her as a clinician. Allison believes that each individual’s needs are unique, and thus, the counseling approach should adapt to those specific needs. Her view of counseling is to provide a safe environment without judgment, a place to edify truth and provide a voice for one’s own story, and to pave the way for healthy transformation.
Allison explores a wide array of therapeutic approaches and utilizes each in an intentional way to meet the need of each client. More specifically, Allison values and utilizes psychodynamic, gestalt, and existential theories to guide her as a clinician. Allison believes that each individual’s needs are unique, and thus, the counseling approach should adapt to those specific needs. Her view of counseling is to provide a safe environment without judgment, a place to edify truth and provide a voice for one’s own story, and to pave the way for healthy transformation.
(540) 486-2653 View (540) 486-2653

See more therapy options for Harrisonburg

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in Harrisonburg, VA

200+

Average cost per session

$130

Therapists in Harrisonburg, VA who prioritize treating:

92% Anxiety
87% Depression
76% Relationship Issues
76% Stress
75% Trauma and PTSD
71% Self Esteem
65% Coping Skills

Average years in practice

11 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

86% Aetna
85% Anthem
79% BlueCross and BlueShield

How Therapists in Harrisonburg, VA see their clients

70% In Person and Online
30% Online Only

Gender breakdown

80% Female
19% Male
1% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in Harrisonburg?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.