Photo of Adam Diestler, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Adam Diestler
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95207
What is the purpose of therapy? I believe it helps people understand what they need from themselves or their loved ones, and how to ask for it. It's often necessary for people to understand why they stopped using their voice to ask for what they need, or to find out if they ever learned how to use it. Through unconditional support, non-judgment, and caring confrontation, my intention is to help people find peace and trust in their relationships and within themselves. I have worked for several mental health agencies, and have extensive experience helping individuals, couples, and families.
What is the purpose of therapy? I believe it helps people understand what they need from themselves or their loved ones, and how to ask for it. It's often necessary for people to understand why they stopped using their voice to ask for what they need, or to find out if they ever learned how to use it. Through unconditional support, non-judgment, and caring confrontation, my intention is to help people find peace and trust in their relationships and within themselves. I have worked for several mental health agencies, and have extensive experience helping individuals, couples, and families.
(209) 852-4806 View (209) 852-4806
Photo of Marina Richardson, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Stockton, CA
Marina Richardson
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95207
Over 15+ years, working with diverse and high risk populations to help overcome challenges arising from (severe) mental illness, co-occurring disorders, domestic violence, and trauma. Extensive training and experience in working with individuals in crisis and teaching others about Suicide Prevention. In addition to conducting crisis-related risk assessments and crisis-related interventions, I utilize other therapeutic approaches, CBT, D-CBT, and Solution-Focused treatment modalities. Providing individual therapy, adults and adolescents, Family/Couples therapy, group therapy.
Over 15+ years, working with diverse and high risk populations to help overcome challenges arising from (severe) mental illness, co-occurring disorders, domestic violence, and trauma. Extensive training and experience in working with individuals in crisis and teaching others about Suicide Prevention. In addition to conducting crisis-related risk assessments and crisis-related interventions, I utilize other therapeutic approaches, CBT, D-CBT, and Solution-Focused treatment modalities. Providing individual therapy, adults and adolescents, Family/Couples therapy, group therapy.
(209) 314-5313 View (209) 314-5313
Photo of Dr. Ayesha Christina Paige Hunter, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Dr. Ayesha Christina Paige Hunter
Marriage & Family Therapist, EdD, LMFT, MA
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Stockton, CA 95207
Waitlist for new clients
Currently Accepting New Patients. Trained in EMDR and BSP. I specialize in working with people of color and all others who need support. I also come from a Christian perspective, although I am open to working with people from all backgrounds. I have been formerly trained in trauma-informed practices and I am a Certified WRAP Facilitator. I sincerely care about helping people overcome their tragedies and I whole-heartedly support recovery from trauma, addictions, and life experiences that could potentially provide setbacks. I believe the saying, "A setback is a setup for a comeback!"
Currently Accepting New Patients. Trained in EMDR and BSP. I specialize in working with people of color and all others who need support. I also come from a Christian perspective, although I am open to working with people from all backgrounds. I have been formerly trained in trauma-informed practices and I am a Certified WRAP Facilitator. I sincerely care about helping people overcome their tragedies and I whole-heartedly support recovery from trauma, addictions, and life experiences that could potentially provide setbacks. I believe the saying, "A setback is a setup for a comeback!"
(209) 584-6166 View (209) 584-6166
Photo of Lidia Minerva Haefele, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Stockton, CA
Lidia Minerva Haefele
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95207
My name is Lidia Haefele and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) based in the Riverside and Orange County area in California, and I am also working with statewide clients via Telehealth. I work with adults including veterans and active duty and specialize in addictions, anxiety, depression, trauma, difficult transitions, and any life challenges that can affect your ability to live a balanced and healthy life. I will use the therapy model that is more appropriate for you so you can start achieving your goals.
My name is Lidia Haefele and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) based in the Riverside and Orange County area in California, and I am also working with statewide clients via Telehealth. I work with adults including veterans and active duty and specialize in addictions, anxiety, depression, trauma, difficult transitions, and any life challenges that can affect your ability to live a balanced and healthy life. I will use the therapy model that is more appropriate for you so you can start achieving your goals.
(619) 536-1357 View (619) 536-1357
Photo of Henry Cuellar, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Henry Cuellar
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95207
My name is Henry Cuellar and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist. I'm originally from Honduras and have been in the States since I was 11 years old. I've been in the mental health field for over 10 years and I'm passionate about helping individuals in their healing journey. I've been in the mental health field for various years and have extensive experience working in addiction medicine. I work with clients who are wanting to explore themselves to be the best version they can be and heal parts of themselves that need healing.
My name is Henry Cuellar and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist. I'm originally from Honduras and have been in the States since I was 11 years old. I've been in the mental health field for over 10 years and I'm passionate about helping individuals in their healing journey. I've been in the mental health field for various years and have extensive experience working in addiction medicine. I work with clients who are wanting to explore themselves to be the best version they can be and heal parts of themselves that need healing.
(760) 512-8805 View (760) 512-8805
Photo of Shohreh White, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Shohreh White
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95206
Hello! My name is Shohreh but I go by Sho for short. I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and Associate Professional Clinical Counselor who has a passion to help others achieve their best life. Sometimes life can leave one feeling lost or powerless, you may be wondering what your next steps should be. I would be honored to help you navigate and walk with you in your journey to finding and reclaiming your true self.
Hello! My name is Shohreh but I go by Sho for short. I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and Associate Professional Clinical Counselor who has a passion to help others achieve their best life. Sometimes life can leave one feeling lost or powerless, you may be wondering what your next steps should be. I would be honored to help you navigate and walk with you in your journey to finding and reclaiming your true self.
(831) 208-3411 View (831) 208-3411
Photo of Amanda Johnson, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Stockton, CA
Amanda Johnson
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95209
Hi, I am Amanda Johnson, LCSW (101426). I approach therapy from a client centered lens. It's important to me that my client's feel safe, heard, and have input in their treatment. I use a Strength Based approach with a variety of other therapeutic modalities to work with many DSM5 diagnosis. Depression, anxiety, attachment, personality disorder, bipolar, and substance abuse are some of my most worked with disorders. Some of the populations I have served are, families that have encountered the CPS system, domestic violence survivors, teens released from psychiatric care, and pre-teens.
Hi, I am Amanda Johnson, LCSW (101426). I approach therapy from a client centered lens. It's important to me that my client's feel safe, heard, and have input in their treatment. I use a Strength Based approach with a variety of other therapeutic modalities to work with many DSM5 diagnosis. Depression, anxiety, attachment, personality disorder, bipolar, and substance abuse are some of my most worked with disorders. Some of the populations I have served are, families that have encountered the CPS system, domestic violence survivors, teens released from psychiatric care, and pre-teens.
(323) 996-0669 View (323) 996-0669
Photo of Susan Willett, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Susan Willett
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95206
My background was in the creative arts, and I use that often in my relationships with clients. My concentration is on neural-plasticity (which is basically the science of how the brain can change old thinking patterns with practice.) I think the combination of creativity and science makes for good therapy, while warmth and humor make for a great relationship. Initially, I work with depression and anxiety, generally taking a "family systems" approach. In other words, how your upbringing and early experiences impact your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors today.
My background was in the creative arts, and I use that often in my relationships with clients. My concentration is on neural-plasticity (which is basically the science of how the brain can change old thinking patterns with practice.) I think the combination of creativity and science makes for good therapy, while warmth and humor make for a great relationship. Initially, I work with depression and anxiety, generally taking a "family systems" approach. In other words, how your upbringing and early experiences impact your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors today.
(858) 367-9118 View (858) 367-9118
Photo of DeShannon Williamson, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Stockton, CA
DeShannon Williamson
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Stockton, CA 95207  (Online Only)
I offer expertise in evidence-based treatments for anxiety, depression, and relationship difficulties. I use a collaborative and strengths-based approach that integrates cultural factors as appropriate. I was raised in an inner-city, urban area, and I carry a high level of understanding for individuals that come from marginalized environments like myself. I also specialize in professional and work stress. I have been a business owner, philanthropist, and investor for almost 30 years. I have experience with high output career stress and how it can affect us.
I offer expertise in evidence-based treatments for anxiety, depression, and relationship difficulties. I use a collaborative and strengths-based approach that integrates cultural factors as appropriate. I was raised in an inner-city, urban area, and I carry a high level of understanding for individuals that come from marginalized environments like myself. I also specialize in professional and work stress. I have been a business owner, philanthropist, and investor for almost 30 years. I have experience with high output career stress and how it can affect us.
(341) 999-7430 View (341) 999-7430

Online Therapists

Photo of Kacey Truong, Pre-Licensed Professional in Stockton, CA
Kacey Truong
Pre-Licensed Professional, ASW
Verified Verified
Oakland, CA 94609
As a first-generation Asian-American, I recognize and understand and can help address intergenerational trauma and multicultural issues along with family issues.
Do you struggle with anxiety and depression due to your childhood trauma? Are you having problems with your partner or family members due to life transition issues? Are you experiencing increased stress, fears, and doubts around the future? I believe that we all have the capacity to heal our emotional wounds and create meaningful changes. My goal as a therapist is to offer you a safe place in which you can process insights, concerns, and emotions associated with trauma.
As a first-generation Asian-American, I recognize and understand and can help address intergenerational trauma and multicultural issues along with family issues.
Do you struggle with anxiety and depression due to your childhood trauma? Are you having problems with your partner or family members due to life transition issues? Are you experiencing increased stress, fears, and doubts around the future? I believe that we all have the capacity to heal our emotional wounds and create meaningful changes. My goal as a therapist is to offer you a safe place in which you can process insights, concerns, and emotions associated with trauma.
(415) 236-4893 View (415) 236-4893
Photo of Dr. Vivian Lee Pichardo, Psychologist in Stockton, CA
Dr. Vivian Lee Pichardo
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
San Mateo, CA 94401
I focus on providing a safe space for Asian Americans, immigrants, and people navigating multicultural identities.
Changes are hard, but not impossible. I believe lasting change occurs through profound self-understanding and awareness. This can be achieved through a collaborative relationship where we talk and think together to gain insights and meanings. My role is to provide a safe environment where a trusting relationship can be built. By listening to your stories, I will help you process the thoughts and feelings that emerge in order to develop a deeper understanding of your past traumas, inner conflicts, and destructive patterns. These newfound insights will then guide you to make changes in your current relationships or life situations.
I focus on providing a safe space for Asian Americans, immigrants, and people navigating multicultural identities.
Changes are hard, but not impossible. I believe lasting change occurs through profound self-understanding and awareness. This can be achieved through a collaborative relationship where we talk and think together to gain insights and meanings. My role is to provide a safe environment where a trusting relationship can be built. By listening to your stories, I will help you process the thoughts and feelings that emerge in order to develop a deeper understanding of your past traumas, inner conflicts, and destructive patterns. These newfound insights will then guide you to make changes in your current relationships or life situations.
(628) 258-7367 View (628) 258-7367
Photo of Edgar A Ledezma Gallo, Associate Professional Clinical Counselor in Stockton, CA
Edgar A Ledezma Gallo
Associate Professional Clinical Counselor, BA, MA, APCC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Sacramento, CA 95821
My education, training and experience have prepared me to work with adolescents, adults, couples, families, a wide range of multicultural backgrounds, the LGBTQIA+ community, and a multitude of mental disorders/challenges.
Throughout our life experiences we sometimes become clouded by the obstacles that life throws at us, which may cause for our inner voice, your true self, to get pushed down in the process. This ultimately can lead to making decisions that we’re not happy with. My goal is to assist you with guiding out that inner voice into the open and utilizing it to work together to tackle present challenges, while providing an accepting and safe environment for you to be yourself. I believe you have an array of strengths, abilities and skills that can be utilized to assist with the challenges at hand.
My education, training and experience have prepared me to work with adolescents, adults, couples, families, a wide range of multicultural backgrounds, the LGBTQIA+ community, and a multitude of mental disorders/challenges.
Throughout our life experiences we sometimes become clouded by the obstacles that life throws at us, which may cause for our inner voice, your true self, to get pushed down in the process. This ultimately can lead to making decisions that we’re not happy with. My goal is to assist you with guiding out that inner voice into the open and utilizing it to work together to tackle present challenges, while providing an accepting and safe environment for you to be yourself. I believe you have an array of strengths, abilities and skills that can be utilized to assist with the challenges at hand.
(916) 282-7775 View (916) 282-7775
Photo of Anicia A Williams, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Anicia A Williams
Marriage & Family Therapist, BS, MS, MFT
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
San Rafael, CA 94901  (Online Only)
I specialize in anxiety, depression, trauma, multicultural issues, addictions & the relationships that suffer as a result. I love helping anyone willing, to (learn to) love and honor the person they are today & recognize their story’s ending is one that they get to choose. I enjoy helping clients who found ways to manage their mental health issues in ways that are no longer serving them. My practice is a safe space and provides equality of services and care to everyone, regardless of age, gender, gender identity, race, disability, religion, or belief or sexual orientation.
I specialize in anxiety, depression, trauma, multicultural issues, addictions & the relationships that suffer as a result. I love helping anyone willing, to (learn to) love and honor the person they are today & recognize their story’s ending is one that they get to choose. I enjoy helping clients who found ways to manage their mental health issues in ways that are no longer serving them. My practice is a safe space and provides equality of services and care to everyone, regardless of age, gender, gender identity, race, disability, religion, or belief or sexual orientation.
(415) 991-1428 View (415) 991-1428
Photo of Hong Jeong, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Stockton, CA
Hong Jeong
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, EMDR
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
San Jose, CA 95125
I also specialized in treating anxiety due to multicultural issues (loss of identity, career issues, & dysfunctional family dynamics).
We all go through emotional storms where we feel emotionally and physically stuck; we worry too much and lose control of ourselves. Do you find yourself thrown off balance by your childhood trauma? Childhood traumatic experiences such as abandonment, abuse, and neglect lead to social anxiety. My approach is solution-focused and tailored to your needs and goals. I am committed to providing a profound sense of safety and offering compassionate and actionable guidance to all my clients.
I also specialized in treating anxiety due to multicultural issues (loss of identity, career issues, & dysfunctional family dynamics).
We all go through emotional storms where we feel emotionally and physically stuck; we worry too much and lose control of ourselves. Do you find yourself thrown off balance by your childhood trauma? Childhood traumatic experiences such as abandonment, abuse, and neglect lead to social anxiety. My approach is solution-focused and tailored to your needs and goals. I am committed to providing a profound sense of safety and offering compassionate and actionable guidance to all my clients.
(213) 463-8321 View (213) 463-8321
Photo of Seijiro Nishina, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Seijiro Nishina
Marriage & Family Therapist, PsyD, LMFT
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
San Jose, CA 95128
I am passionate for working with individuals, children, couples, families, struggling with difficult life altering circumstances, including acculturation, multicultural issues, identity issues as well as having mental health issues such as anxiety, trauma, depression.
Psychotherapy is a way of creating safe/trusted relationship with a therapist while discovering different views of what clients face in their life.
I am passionate for working with individuals, children, couples, families, struggling with difficult life altering circumstances, including acculturation, multicultural issues, identity issues as well as having mental health issues such as anxiety, trauma, depression.
Psychotherapy is a way of creating safe/trusted relationship with a therapist while discovering different views of what clients face in their life.
(408) 260-5481 View (408) 260-5481
Photo of Tiffany Loggins, Psychologist in Stockton, CA
Tiffany Loggins
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
San Francisco, CA 94116  (Online Only)
Waitlist for new clients
I utilize a multicultural framework while incorporating dialectical and cognitive-behavioral therapy, relational, and mindfulness-based techniques to help increase insight, acquire coping skills, and establish lifestyle changes to incorporate self-care practices to avoid suffering.
I am a culturally sensitive psychologist, author, and mental wellness public speaker in San Francisco, who will create a safe space that distinctively fits your needs to help on your journey toward healing and growth. I understand we often find ourselves feeling lost, overwhelmed, abandoned, or may be at a loss of how we feel, because we’ve arrived at that familiar place of despair and ruminating self doubt. My hope is to provide an opportunity to disentangle from suffering, which may lead to improved quality of life, greater satisfaction within relationships, increased productivity, and enhanced self-worth and compassion.
I utilize a multicultural framework while incorporating dialectical and cognitive-behavioral therapy, relational, and mindfulness-based techniques to help increase insight, acquire coping skills, and establish lifestyle changes to incorporate self-care practices to avoid suffering.
I am a culturally sensitive psychologist, author, and mental wellness public speaker in San Francisco, who will create a safe space that distinctively fits your needs to help on your journey toward healing and growth. I understand we often find ourselves feeling lost, overwhelmed, abandoned, or may be at a loss of how we feel, because we’ve arrived at that familiar place of despair and ruminating self doubt. My hope is to provide an opportunity to disentangle from suffering, which may lead to improved quality of life, greater satisfaction within relationships, increased productivity, and enhanced self-worth and compassion.
(628) 265-8377 View (628) 265-8377
Photo of Lucy Jite-Ogbuehi, Psychologist in Stockton, CA
Lucy Jite-Ogbuehi
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Oakland, CA 94605
Lucy Jite-Ogbuehi, PsyD is a licensed clinical psychologist (PSY3392) based in California. She uses a client-centered/multicultural lens to inform treatment and creates a safe emotional space to explore identity, relationships, life issues, and emotional release, while simultaneously maintaining an open and attentive stance, and using active and reflective listening to allow each individual the opportunity to achieve healing within the therapeutic process.
Lucy Jite-Ogbuehi, PsyD is a licensed clinical psychologist (PSY3392) based in California. She uses a client-centered/multicultural lens to inform treatment and creates a safe emotional space to explore identity, relationships, life issues, and emotional release, while simultaneously maintaining an open and attentive stance, and using active and reflective listening to allow each individual the opportunity to achieve healing within the therapeutic process.
(510) 983-4459 View (510) 983-4459
Photo of Cosmin I Gheorghe, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Cosmin I Gheorghe
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
San Francisco, CA 94102  (Online Only)
I am certified multicultural intelligence therapist and I adapt my work to each person's set of values, beliefs and expectations.
I have 20+ years experience assisting clients to overcome issues related to Anxiety, Mid-Life Crisis, Burnout, Anger, Depression, Addictive/Compulsive Behavior. My clients say they appreciate my "genuine, therapuetic connection", my "warm, grounded, interactive therapy sessions"; my "solid multi-cultural competency". I am not the kind of therapist that sits and nods. I actively work with you to explore what is hapening and identify the best possible solutions. Finding the right therapist is tricky. This is why I am happy to talk with you on the phone before we decide to work together.
I am certified multicultural intelligence therapist and I adapt my work to each person's set of values, beliefs and expectations.
I have 20+ years experience assisting clients to overcome issues related to Anxiety, Mid-Life Crisis, Burnout, Anger, Depression, Addictive/Compulsive Behavior. My clients say they appreciate my "genuine, therapuetic connection", my "warm, grounded, interactive therapy sessions"; my "solid multi-cultural competency". I am not the kind of therapist that sits and nods. I actively work with you to explore what is hapening and identify the best possible solutions. Finding the right therapist is tricky. This is why I am happy to talk with you on the phone before we decide to work together.
(415) 323-3058 View (415) 323-3058
Photo of Melissa Satram, Marriage & Family Therapist in Stockton, CA
Melissa Satram
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
San Jose, CA 95125
I also specialized in multicultural issues and diversity issues such as identity issues, life transitions, and family issues.
Do you ever struggle with feeling like you’re not enough? Do you feel like you have to prove yourself? Do you feel stuck and triggered by childhood trauma? The symptoms of trauma include anxiety, depression, high conflict relationships, occupational impairment, addiction, and much more. I believe therapy can help you develop a more self-awareness and actionable plan to alleviate these symptoms. I specialized in working with people who are willing to explore past, present, and future challenges and to find tools for personal growth.
I also specialized in multicultural issues and diversity issues such as identity issues, life transitions, and family issues.
Do you ever struggle with feeling like you’re not enough? Do you feel like you have to prove yourself? Do you feel stuck and triggered by childhood trauma? The symptoms of trauma include anxiety, depression, high conflict relationships, occupational impairment, addiction, and much more. I believe therapy can help you develop a more self-awareness and actionable plan to alleviate these symptoms. I specialized in working with people who are willing to explore past, present, and future challenges and to find tools for personal growth.
(408) 359-1686 View (408) 359-1686
Photo of Stacey Simpson (Formerly Pinneke), Marriage & Family Therapist Associate in Stockton, CA
Stacey Simpson (Formerly Pinneke)
Marriage & Family Therapist Associate, MA, AMFT, APCC, NCC
Verified Verified
San Jose, CA 95128
My area of focus includes but is not limited to grief and loss, anxiety, depressive symptoms, adjusting to change and life-transitions, relationship-issues, and life challenges resulting from racial and multicultural identity.
Therapy is essential to healing from crisis-related trauma, however it does not always have to be crisis responsive. You may want to change self-defeating behaviors or develop or improve your sense of purpose. While the influence of life experience from infancy through adulthood is undeniable, I specialize in using person-centered therapy that focuses on the present with strengths-based, solutions-oriented emphasis and holistic and mindfulness practices that nurture self- awareness.
My area of focus includes but is not limited to grief and loss, anxiety, depressive symptoms, adjusting to change and life-transitions, relationship-issues, and life challenges resulting from racial and multicultural identity.
Therapy is essential to healing from crisis-related trauma, however it does not always have to be crisis responsive. You may want to change self-defeating behaviors or develop or improve your sense of purpose. While the influence of life experience from infancy through adulthood is undeniable, I specialize in using person-centered therapy that focuses on the present with strengths-based, solutions-oriented emphasis and holistic and mindfulness practices that nurture self- awareness.
(408) 418-2593 View (408) 418-2593
Multicultural Therapists

What type of therapy is multicultural therapy?

Multicultural therapy is not tied to any specific therapy; rather, it is an overarching approach to therapy that aims to acknowledge and address the influence that factors like race, gender identity, and cultural background can have on someone’s life. Multicultural approaches can be applied to CBT, psychodynamic therapy, and others, and can be practiced with individuals, couples, families, or groups.

What can I expect from multicultural therapy?

Multicultural counseling should be tailored to the client’s unique identity and cultural needs. Such approaches often prioritize the building of trust so that the client feels comfortable exploring various aspects of their identity and any challenges caused by mismatches between their identity and the dominant culture. Beyond that, the format and timeline of therapy will be heavily influenced by the therapist’s preferred therapy approach and the specific problems for which the client sought therapy.

Can multicultural therapy help treat trauma?

Yes. Cultural factors such as racial background, gender identity and or sexuality, and immigration or refugee status can influence both whether someone experiences trauma and how they cope afterward. Multicultural approaches to trauma-informed care will be aware of these influences, helping the client recognize how their response to trauma may be shaped by their cultural background and identify coping mechanisms that take their identity into account.

What are the benefits of seeing a multicultural therapist?

Members of minority groups who seek therapy are sometimes frustrated by providers who don’t understand their cultural background or dismiss the ways in which race, gender, or other facets of their identity influence their lived experience. Seeing a multicultural therapist can help these clients feel seen, understood, and able to develop solutions to life challenges that take their upbringing, beliefs, and past experiences into account.