Therapists in Saint Paul, MN

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Photo of Callie Morton, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Callie Morton
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
2 Endorsed
Online Only
Welcome, I'm delighted you're here! I'm Callie Morton, a Licensed Clinical Social Worker providing teletherapy to all individuals across Colorado, Minnesota and Florida. I specialize in supporting those facing challenges related to neurodivergence, identity, life transitions, relationships, depression, anxiety, emotional regulation, grief and loss, stress, and trauma. My approach comes from my identities of being queer, neurodivergent, and a yoga instructor, blending the mind, body, heart, and soul wisdom to promote holistic healing and lasting, balanced change.
Welcome, I'm delighted you're here! I'm Callie Morton, a Licensed Clinical Social Worker providing teletherapy to all individuals across Colorado, Minnesota and Florida. I specialize in supporting those facing challenges related to neurodivergence, identity, life transitions, relationships, depression, anxiety, emotional regulation, grief and loss, stress, and trauma. My approach comes from my identities of being queer, neurodivergent, and a yoga instructor, blending the mind, body, heart, and soul wisdom to promote holistic healing and lasting, balanced change.
(507) 218-7192 View (507) 218-7192
Photo of Amy Stoks, Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, LPCC
Amy Stoks
Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, LPCC
Online Only
I have spent the last eighteen years working with individuals, children, and families. I have spent the majority of my professional career working in K-12 education as a Professional School Counselor, 504 Coordinator/Learning Specialist, and Clinical Therapist. My definition of health is vastly different today than it was when I originally started practicing.
I have spent the last eighteen years working with individuals, children, and families. I have spent the majority of my professional career working in K-12 education as a Professional School Counselor, 504 Coordinator/Learning Specialist, and Clinical Therapist. My definition of health is vastly different today than it was when I originally started practicing.
(612) 999-1186 View (612) 999-1186
Photo of Erin Lingle, Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
Erin Lingle
Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
Saint Paul, MN 55116
Life is constantly moving, changing, and evolving. Sometimes it feels like too much to take on alone. In a fast-paced world with many truths, I enable individuals to fully understand themselves in a warm, collaborative, and judgment-free environment. I know what it feels like to be scared to take the first step; to go through the hard work in order to grow. Because of that, it makes me the therapist I am today. Empathetic, understanding, and compassionate. These qualities are what I bring into our sessions in order to support you in becoming the best version of yourself.
Life is constantly moving, changing, and evolving. Sometimes it feels like too much to take on alone. In a fast-paced world with many truths, I enable individuals to fully understand themselves in a warm, collaborative, and judgment-free environment. I know what it feels like to be scared to take the first step; to go through the hard work in order to grow. Because of that, it makes me the therapist I am today. Empathetic, understanding, and compassionate. These qualities are what I bring into our sessions in order to support you in becoming the best version of yourself.
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Photo of Karl Thomas, Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
Karl Thomas
Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
3 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55114
Are you trying to be a great parent, a loving partner, and a top performer at work—while still remembering to sleep, eat something green, and maybe have a hobby? No big deal, right? I'm Karl, a pre-licensed Marriage and Family Therapist, and I work with men who are juggling the very real pressures of work, relationships, fatherhood, and identity. Whether you’re having the same argument about dishes (again), worrying you’re messing up your kids, or feeling like life’s treadmill is permanently set to “sprint,” I’m here to help you slow down, catch your breath, and reconnect with yourself.
Are you trying to be a great parent, a loving partner, and a top performer at work—while still remembering to sleep, eat something green, and maybe have a hobby? No big deal, right? I'm Karl, a pre-licensed Marriage and Family Therapist, and I work with men who are juggling the very real pressures of work, relationships, fatherhood, and identity. Whether you’re having the same argument about dishes (again), worrying you’re messing up your kids, or feeling like life’s treadmill is permanently set to “sprint,” I’m here to help you slow down, catch your breath, and reconnect with yourself.
(651) 424-0279 View (651) 424-0279
Photo of Onosuvotu C Miller, Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
Onosuvotu C Miller
Pre-Licensed Professional, MA
1 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55104
I believe in a holistic view of individuals, where thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. This is essential for creating a safe and supportive environment for clients. My therapeutic approach is primarily grounded in Adlerian theory, which encourages identifying maladaptive beliefs and behaviors to foster personal growth and a sense of belonging. Additionally, I integrate other approaches to tailor my practice to meet the unique needs of each client. I focus on providing a flexible and comprehensive approach to support clients in achieving their goals and enhancing their well-being.
I believe in a holistic view of individuals, where thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. This is essential for creating a safe and supportive environment for clients. My therapeutic approach is primarily grounded in Adlerian theory, which encourages identifying maladaptive beliefs and behaviors to foster personal growth and a sense of belonging. Additionally, I integrate other approaches to tailor my practice to meet the unique needs of each client. I focus on providing a flexible and comprehensive approach to support clients in achieving their goals and enhancing their well-being.
(651) 427-1195 View (651) 427-1195
Photo of Taylor Ryan, Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, MA, LPCC
Taylor Ryan
Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, MA, LPCC
2 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55104
If you’re a neurodivergent adult exploring your identity, healing from trauma, or feeling burned out from masking, you’re in the right place. Together, we’ll honor your sensitivity and intensity as strengths, unlearn perfectionism, and build a life that truly fits who you are.
If you’re a neurodivergent adult exploring your identity, healing from trauma, or feeling burned out from masking, you’re in the right place. Together, we’ll honor your sensitivity and intensity as strengths, unlearn perfectionism, and build a life that truly fits who you are.
(651) 384-0295 View (651) 384-0295
Photo of Anton Evans, Marriage & Family Therapist, MA, LMFT
Anton Evans
Marriage & Family Therapist, MA, LMFT
1 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55119
I enjoy working with clients that are fed up with constant feelings of dissatisfaction in life and are ready to discover new ways of thinking and being. The clients that I work with are from many different walks of life. They struggle with issues such as substance use, relationship problems, identity issues, depression, anxiety, life stressors and fears about the future. I enjoy working with clients to challenge beliefs about their reality and take control of their lives.
I enjoy working with clients that are fed up with constant feelings of dissatisfaction in life and are ready to discover new ways of thinking and being. The clients that I work with are from many different walks of life. They struggle with issues such as substance use, relationship problems, identity issues, depression, anxiety, life stressors and fears about the future. I enjoy working with clients to challenge beliefs about their reality and take control of their lives.
(651) 318-4688 View (651) 318-4688
Photo of Erin A Metz, Marriage & Family Therapist, DMFT, LMFT, LADC
Erin A Metz
Marriage & Family Therapist, DMFT, LMFT, LADC
Online Only
You’ve spent years taking care of everyone else, keeping it together, doing what’s expected, and putting your own needs last. Maybe you’ve come to a turning point where something needs to change, but you’re unsure what that change looks like. You feel alone in your struggles, disconnected from your true self, and stuck in patterns that no longer serve you. Whether you’re navigating a major life transition, feeling burnt out from people-pleasing, or untangling family dynamics, therapy can be the space where you finally begin to reconnect—with yourself, your needs, and your values leading to deeper healing and growth.
You’ve spent years taking care of everyone else, keeping it together, doing what’s expected, and putting your own needs last. Maybe you’ve come to a turning point where something needs to change, but you’re unsure what that change looks like. You feel alone in your struggles, disconnected from your true self, and stuck in patterns that no longer serve you. Whether you’re navigating a major life transition, feeling burnt out from people-pleasing, or untangling family dynamics, therapy can be the space where you finally begin to reconnect—with yourself, your needs, and your values leading to deeper healing and growth.
(612) 662-0556 View (612) 662-0556
Photo of Brownell Fransen Hilger, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LICSW
Brownell Fransen Hilger
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LICSW
1 Endorsed
Online Only
TELEHEALTH provider only currently. People choose to go to therapy for a variety of reasons. Choosing a therapist can be intimidating and difficult. Being able to trust someone with your secrets is key to developing a good therapeutic relationship. I believe that everyone is able to change if they are willing to do the work. I provide a caring, supportive and empowering environment in which to work on the healing process. I approach life from a strengths based perspective and believe in assuming positive intentions.
TELEHEALTH provider only currently. People choose to go to therapy for a variety of reasons. Choosing a therapist can be intimidating and difficult. Being able to trust someone with your secrets is key to developing a good therapeutic relationship. I believe that everyone is able to change if they are willing to do the work. I provide a caring, supportive and empowering environment in which to work on the healing process. I approach life from a strengths based perspective and believe in assuming positive intentions.
(612) 255-4536 View (612) 255-4536
Photo of Ruth Brooke Markowitz, Psychologist, MALP
Ruth Brooke Markowitz
Psychologist, MALP
Saint Paul, MN 55104
I enjoy working with adults of all sexual orientations who want to heal sexually and intimately.I love working with couples as well as individuals. People who are creative and artistic and enjoy using a variety of therapeutic modalities to heal find me helpful. Anxious, traumatized avoidant, ,depressed and grief stricken people find me to be direct, warm,honest and a good listener. I am integrative in my approach and also believe in homework, practice and mindfulness practice. I believe I am a good fit with people who describe themselves as a bit out of the box.
I enjoy working with adults of all sexual orientations who want to heal sexually and intimately.I love working with couples as well as individuals. People who are creative and artistic and enjoy using a variety of therapeutic modalities to heal find me helpful. Anxious, traumatized avoidant, ,depressed and grief stricken people find me to be direct, warm,honest and a good listener. I am integrative in my approach and also believe in homework, practice and mindfulness practice. I believe I am a good fit with people who describe themselves as a bit out of the box.
(651) 401-8063 View (651) 401-8063
Photo of Lee Cunningham, Counselor, MPS, LPCC, LADC
Lee Cunningham
Counselor, MPS, LPCC, LADC
4 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55102
In a world that often rewards speed and suppression, therapy can offer a space to intentionally slow down. I offer a structured space and compassionate relationship to help you notice what has been ignored, minimized, or carried alone for too long.
In a world that often rewards speed and suppression, therapy can offer a space to intentionally slow down. I offer a structured space and compassionate relationship to help you notice what has been ignored, minimized, or carried alone for too long.
(612) 260-6982 View (612) 260-6982
Photo of Couples Expert Jeffrey Hupf, Marriage & Family Therapist, MS, LMFT
Couples Expert Jeffrey Hupf
Marriage & Family Therapist, MS, LMFT
Saint Paul, MN 55114
Therapists can't be good at everything. That's why I devote the vast majority of my practice to couples. Relationships are hard and we can find ourselves acting in ways that surprise even ourselves when things go wrong. So, you won't find me occupying the moral high ground, playing therapy tricks on you, or judging you. I'm marriage and relationship friendly, so I won't push you toward a crisis, a divorce or a break-up. As it is 50% of marriages end in divorce and upwards of 65% of second marriages end in a break-up, so if you have hopes and dreams for making things work, I'll be behind you 100%.
Therapists can't be good at everything. That's why I devote the vast majority of my practice to couples. Relationships are hard and we can find ourselves acting in ways that surprise even ourselves when things go wrong. So, you won't find me occupying the moral high ground, playing therapy tricks on you, or judging you. I'm marriage and relationship friendly, so I won't push you toward a crisis, a divorce or a break-up. As it is 50% of marriages end in divorce and upwards of 65% of second marriages end in a break-up, so if you have hopes and dreams for making things work, I'll be behind you 100%.
(651) 504-3464 View (651) 504-3464
Photo of Laurie Nordahl, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LGSW
Laurie Nordahl
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LGSW
Saint Paul, MN 55114
Not accepting new clients
As a person of color, a transnational and transracial adoptee, and a member of the queer community, I understand the struggle of trying to find providers who share your identity. The struggle to feel truly seen and understood. My goal as a therapist is to not only help you feel seen, but to partner with you on your journey to fully see yourself. Therapy is self-discovery. It is an opportunity to lean into our strengths, process hard things, open ourselves up to new perspectives, and embrace the fullness of who we are. If you are looking for a space to unpack, process, heal, and dream, I would be honored to walk that path with you.
As a person of color, a transnational and transracial adoptee, and a member of the queer community, I understand the struggle of trying to find providers who share your identity. The struggle to feel truly seen and understood. My goal as a therapist is to not only help you feel seen, but to partner with you on your journey to fully see yourself. Therapy is self-discovery. It is an opportunity to lean into our strengths, process hard things, open ourselves up to new perspectives, and embrace the fullness of who we are. If you are looking for a space to unpack, process, heal, and dream, I would be honored to walk that path with you.
(651) 372-3039 View (651) 372-3039
Photo of Amanda Markowski, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LICSW
Amanda Markowski
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LICSW
1 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55102
Not accepting new clients
I strive to provide a supportive and non-judgmental environment to help you learn more about yourself, gain skills to navigate life’s challenges, and live an authentic, fulfilled life. My areas of focus include working with clients who experience anxiety, panic, OCD, and trauma. I enjoy working with clients who identify as LGBQ+, transgender, and/or gender expansive. In my practice, I utilize a person-centered, relational approach.
I strive to provide a supportive and non-judgmental environment to help you learn more about yourself, gain skills to navigate life’s challenges, and live an authentic, fulfilled life. My areas of focus include working with clients who experience anxiety, panic, OCD, and trauma. I enjoy working with clients who identify as LGBQ+, transgender, and/or gender expansive. In my practice, I utilize a person-centered, relational approach.
(612) 999-2263 View (612) 999-2263
Photo of Dr. Nicholas M. Beller, Psychologist, PsyD, LP, CADC
Dr. Nicholas M. Beller
Psychologist, PsyD, LP, CADC
Saint Paul, MN 55105
Dr. Beller is a licensed psychologist (MN) and certified alcohol and drug counselor, with experience across the continuum of mental health interventions from outpatient to inpatient hospitalization. With a primary focus on chronic mental health issues, addiction problems, and severe mental illness, Dr. Beller has a deep commitment to working with those who feel the mental healthcare system has failed them. His goal is to help individuals establish a life less weighed down by problems that can feel impossible to overcome, and to re-focus on finding purpose, meaning, and connection to what is most important.
Dr. Beller is a licensed psychologist (MN) and certified alcohol and drug counselor, with experience across the continuum of mental health interventions from outpatient to inpatient hospitalization. With a primary focus on chronic mental health issues, addiction problems, and severe mental illness, Dr. Beller has a deep commitment to working with those who feel the mental healthcare system has failed them. His goal is to help individuals establish a life less weighed down by problems that can feel impossible to overcome, and to re-focus on finding purpose, meaning, and connection to what is most important.
(651) 376-3067 View (651) 376-3067
Photo of Mary Devorak, Marriage & Family Therapist, MS, LMFT
Mary Devorak
Marriage & Family Therapist, MS, LMFT
Saint Paul, MN 55104
I work with children of all ages and am in the process of becoming a Registered Play Therapist. I'm certified in AutPlay. I care deeply about individualizing therapy for each unique child, based on their neurological needs. I enjoy working with parents and families as well, to help strengthen and repair relationships. I also work with teens and adults within the LGBTQ+ and neurodivergent communities who are looking to get to know themselves and their relationships better. I also work with a lot of nerdy gamers and crafters- much like myself!
I work with children of all ages and am in the process of becoming a Registered Play Therapist. I'm certified in AutPlay. I care deeply about individualizing therapy for each unique child, based on their neurological needs. I enjoy working with parents and families as well, to help strengthen and repair relationships. I also work with teens and adults within the LGBTQ+ and neurodivergent communities who are looking to get to know themselves and their relationships better. I also work with a lot of nerdy gamers and crafters- much like myself!
(612) 482-1635 View (612) 482-1635
Photo of Mark Hantla, Pre-Licensed Professional
Mark Hantla
Pre-Licensed Professional
2 Endorsed
Saint Paul, MN 55114
Not accepting new clients
Often, a deep sense that something is missing brings us to therapy—something we long for, even if we can’t name it. I invite you to trust that feeling and take the brave step of reaching out. My therapeutic approach is built upon these core beliefs: 1) Healing takes place in the context of safe, caring relationships. 2) Growth arises through vulnerability and self-reflection. 3) Real change involves both letting go and choosing what truly matters to you.
Often, a deep sense that something is missing brings us to therapy—something we long for, even if we can’t name it. I invite you to trust that feeling and take the brave step of reaching out. My therapeutic approach is built upon these core beliefs: 1) Healing takes place in the context of safe, caring relationships. 2) Growth arises through vulnerability and self-reflection. 3) Real change involves both letting go and choosing what truly matters to you.
(612) 662-2586 View (612) 662-2586
Photo of Holly Tofanelli, Marriage & Family Therapist, MA, LMFT
Holly Tofanelli
Marriage & Family Therapist, MA, LMFT
5 Endorsed
Online Only
Holly holds a master's degree from the Minnesota School of Professional Psychology at Argosy University. She welcomes working with adults, teens, couples, and families regarding relationship conflicts, anxiety, depression, grief and loss, substance abuse, communication, aggression, LGBTQIA+ issues, parenting and emotional dysregulation. As a group facilitator, Holly is both dynamic and engaging. She is trained in Brainspotting, EMDR, Gottman method, as as well as Aggression Replacement Training. Holly has also worked with Alzheimer's/Dementia, and family caregivers at the University of Minnesota and Fairview Hospital.
Holly holds a master's degree from the Minnesota School of Professional Psychology at Argosy University. She welcomes working with adults, teens, couples, and families regarding relationship conflicts, anxiety, depression, grief and loss, substance abuse, communication, aggression, LGBTQIA+ issues, parenting and emotional dysregulation. As a group facilitator, Holly is both dynamic and engaging. She is trained in Brainspotting, EMDR, Gottman method, as as well as Aggression Replacement Training. Holly has also worked with Alzheimer's/Dementia, and family caregivers at the University of Minnesota and Fairview Hospital.
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Photo of Lucy Neale, Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, MPS, LPCC, LADC
Lucy Neale
Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, MPS, LPCC, LADC
Saint Paul, MN 55114
Taking the first step toward therapy can feel overwhelming, especially when life feels heavy or uncertain. Whether you're navigating a major life transition, struggling with persistent anxiety, depression, low self-worth, or facing challenges in relationships, you don’t have to go through it alone. If you’re not sure where to begin, you’re in the right place.
Taking the first step toward therapy can feel overwhelming, especially when life feels heavy or uncertain. Whether you're navigating a major life transition, struggling with persistent anxiety, depression, low self-worth, or facing challenges in relationships, you don’t have to go through it alone. If you’re not sure where to begin, you’re in the right place.
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Photo of Lorena Villaseñor, Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPCC
Lorena Villaseñor
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPCC
Online Only
Helping you heal and reach your full potential is both a blessing and a privilege. Offering you a healing process filled with compassion, authenticity, warmth, and a non judgmental attitude is my priority. My offering: A healing process that helps you to discover and understand how unresolved painful experiences from the past keep impacting your present thoughts, needs, feelings and behaviors. Developing skills to become aware of these will allow you to have a more loving relationship with ALL the parts of yourself. As a result, more meaningful relationships and deeper connections with others will follow.
Helping you heal and reach your full potential is both a blessing and a privilege. Offering you a healing process filled with compassion, authenticity, warmth, and a non judgmental attitude is my priority. My offering: A healing process that helps you to discover and understand how unresolved painful experiences from the past keep impacting your present thoughts, needs, feelings and behaviors. Developing skills to become aware of these will allow you to have a more loving relationship with ALL the parts of yourself. As a result, more meaningful relationships and deeper connections with others will follow.
(612) 662-0896 View (612) 662-0896

See more therapy options for Saint Paul

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in Saint Paul, MN

1,000+

Average cost per session

$175

Therapists in Saint Paul, MN who prioritize treating:

93% Anxiety
88% Depression
76% Relationship Issues
75% Trauma and PTSD
73% Self Esteem
66% Stress
62% Grief

Average years in practice

10 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

88% BlueCross and BlueShield
77% Aetna
69% Cigna and Evernorth

How Therapists in Saint Paul, MN see their clients

69% In Person and Online
31% Online Only

Gender breakdown

76% Female
20% Male
4% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in Saint Paul?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.