Therapists in Seattle, WA

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Photo of Christy Stewart, Psychologist in Seattle, WA
Christy Stewart
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98118
I envision our work together to as a collaborative process of exploration, discovery, and progress. You bring to this process your unique perspectives, experiences, memories, worldview, and energy for growth. I bring extensive training and experience in psychological processes, assessment, life span development, understanding of how people change, and a genuine interest in helping you. Together, we will set goals and explore thoughts, feelings, experiences, and perceptions to further your personal development and psychological well-being. You will find me patient, attuned to your experience, and truly interest in understanding your perspective.
I envision our work together to as a collaborative process of exploration, discovery, and progress. You bring to this process your unique perspectives, experiences, memories, worldview, and energy for growth. I bring extensive training and experience in psychological processes, assessment, life span development, understanding of how people change, and a genuine interest in helping you. Together, we will set goals and explore thoughts, feelings, experiences, and perceptions to further your personal development and psychological well-being. You will find me patient, attuned to your experience, and truly interest in understanding your perspective.
(206) 452-1676 View (206) 452-1676
Photo of Lena Neufeld, Psychologist in Seattle, WA
Lena Neufeld
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98199
I am a licensed clinical psychologist who has been working and training in the field for 11 years. I view psychotherapy as a collaborative process and tailor treatment to your specific goals. In doing so, I draw on an integrative theoretical approach that includes elements of contemporary psychodynamic and attachment theory, as well as cognitive behavioral therapy. I use these methodologies to treat adolescents and adults who are presenting with a range of conditions, including mood and anxiety disorders, relationship issues, identity concerns, loss and grief, and life transitions.
I am a licensed clinical psychologist who has been working and training in the field for 11 years. I view psychotherapy as a collaborative process and tailor treatment to your specific goals. In doing so, I draw on an integrative theoretical approach that includes elements of contemporary psychodynamic and attachment theory, as well as cognitive behavioral therapy. I use these methodologies to treat adolescents and adults who are presenting with a range of conditions, including mood and anxiety disorders, relationship issues, identity concerns, loss and grief, and life transitions.
(206) 309-6181 View (206) 309-6181
Photo of Dr. Helena Soholm, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Dr. Helena Soholm
Counselor, PhD, LMHC
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98107
Healing through Science and Spirituality. I help talented professionals and creatives discover their life purpose and find meaning. We live in an increasingly complex and stressful world. Many people are suffering under the weight of societal pressures and expectations, which separate us from the heart of what it means to be human living an intentional life. I work with people who struggle to make sense of themselves and their lives. Many have achieved a secure and abundant life, having gained success in careers and fields that provide for their material needs, but their souls are feeling restless and craving real nourishment.
Healing through Science and Spirituality. I help talented professionals and creatives discover their life purpose and find meaning. We live in an increasingly complex and stressful world. Many people are suffering under the weight of societal pressures and expectations, which separate us from the heart of what it means to be human living an intentional life. I work with people who struggle to make sense of themselves and their lives. Many have achieved a secure and abundant life, having gained success in careers and fields that provide for their material needs, but their souls are feeling restless and craving real nourishment.
(206) 745-3416 View (206) 745-3416
Photo of Moriah Brier, Psychologist in Seattle, WA
Moriah Brier
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98118  (Online Only)
My goal is to help you become more at ease with yourself and your emotions so that you can feel less daunted by the day-to-day, experience more fulfilling relationships, and be more productive in the domains of life that matter to you. I primarily treat anxiety, depression, chronic pain, insomnia, and trauma. My approach focuses on heightening your awareness of the thoughts, negative core beliefs, and behaviors that get in your way and helping you master strategies to address them. This is done within the framework of a relationship in which you feel supported, accepted, and heard.
My goal is to help you become more at ease with yourself and your emotions so that you can feel less daunted by the day-to-day, experience more fulfilling relationships, and be more productive in the domains of life that matter to you. I primarily treat anxiety, depression, chronic pain, insomnia, and trauma. My approach focuses on heightening your awareness of the thoughts, negative core beliefs, and behaviors that get in your way and helping you master strategies to address them. This is done within the framework of a relationship in which you feel supported, accepted, and heard.
(206) 202-5244 View (206) 202-5244
Photo of Jared Kilmer, Psychologist in Seattle, WA
Jared Kilmer
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
6 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98126  (Online Only)
I deeply value the chance to speak candidly with others, to see and be seen. In a context of trust, where both parties are free of fear of the other’s reaction, genuine communication is a powerful and aligning force. I strive to maintain transparency in our work together to create a collaborative environment that enables the free exchange of thoughts and feelings. As we work together to meet your goals, you can expect my compassion, flexibility, and commitment. I am personally and professionally familiar with the value of geek and gaming culture and am competent to incorporate it into therapy when appropriate.
I deeply value the chance to speak candidly with others, to see and be seen. In a context of trust, where both parties are free of fear of the other’s reaction, genuine communication is a powerful and aligning force. I strive to maintain transparency in our work together to create a collaborative environment that enables the free exchange of thoughts and feelings. As we work together to meet your goals, you can expect my compassion, flexibility, and commitment. I am personally and professionally familiar with the value of geek and gaming culture and am competent to incorporate it into therapy when appropriate.
(206) 203-8179 View (206) 203-8179
Photo of Tracy G Bell, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Tracy G Bell
Counselor, MA, LMHC
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98103
Waitlist for new clients
I work with young, midlife, and elderly adults in all phases of life transition, whose lives have brought them to a place where they want support to work through difficult, stuck, or critical times. What often appears problematic is evidence of a solution trying to happen. I see this as an organic process which can come with disturbance, frustration, over-stimulation and/or depression. What you sometimes can't see by yourself, you can see, navigate, and resolve with the help of another. My approach is to join my clients in their quest for resolution, meaning, and happiness.
I work with young, midlife, and elderly adults in all phases of life transition, whose lives have brought them to a place where they want support to work through difficult, stuck, or critical times. What often appears problematic is evidence of a solution trying to happen. I see this as an organic process which can come with disturbance, frustration, over-stimulation and/or depression. What you sometimes can't see by yourself, you can see, navigate, and resolve with the help of another. My approach is to join my clients in their quest for resolution, meaning, and happiness.
(206) 316-8792 View (206) 316-8792
Photo of Caitlyn Liao, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Seattle, WA
Caitlyn Liao
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LSWAIC
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98119
I help adults and couples who feel lost, disconnected, or stuck in old patterns that no longer serve them. My clients are ready to understand themselves more deeply, pursue meaning, and relate authentically. I can help you embrace your strengths and gain clarity about underlying wounds that affect your thoughts, emotions, and relationships today. Through collaborative exploration in a safe space, we'll partner to process your past, connect insights intellectually and emotionally, and take steps towards the life you want.
I help adults and couples who feel lost, disconnected, or stuck in old patterns that no longer serve them. My clients are ready to understand themselves more deeply, pursue meaning, and relate authentically. I can help you embrace your strengths and gain clarity about underlying wounds that affect your thoughts, emotions, and relationships today. Through collaborative exploration in a safe space, we'll partner to process your past, connect insights intellectually and emotionally, and take steps towards the life you want.
(206) 895-4008 View (206) 895-4008
Photo of Serena D Forward-Rodriguez, Mental Health Counselor in Seattle, WA
Serena D Forward-Rodriguez
Mental Health Counselor, MA, MHP, LMHC
Verified Verified
6 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98107  (Online Only)
Waitlist for new clients
You're LGBTQIA+, large-bodied, or managing chronic illness and enduring depression, anxiety, or PTSD. You're a therapist dealing with burnout or mental/physical illness. Intersecting identities, oppression, and health issues are complex. You can't waste precious energy on an ignorant therapist or risk prejudice. Therapists are likely feeling stretched or burned out under converging life and work stressors. Others assume we have it handled and we feel we should too. If any of this resonates with you, as your new therapist, I GOT you! These specialties align with my life experiences and identity. Let's hit the ground running!
You're LGBTQIA+, large-bodied, or managing chronic illness and enduring depression, anxiety, or PTSD. You're a therapist dealing with burnout or mental/physical illness. Intersecting identities, oppression, and health issues are complex. You can't waste precious energy on an ignorant therapist or risk prejudice. Therapists are likely feeling stretched or burned out under converging life and work stressors. Others assume we have it handled and we feel we should too. If any of this resonates with you, as your new therapist, I GOT you! These specialties align with my life experiences and identity. Let's hit the ground running!
(253) 342-1900 View (253) 342-1900
Photo of Lissette 'liz' Berlanga, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Lissette 'liz' Berlanga
Counselor, MS, LMHC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98115  (Online Only)
I strive to create a safe, supportive, and judgment free environment to explore and move through feeling stuck. Using evidence-based strategies and a multicultural / social justice lens, I strive to connect my clients to solutions and insights that can lead to real change. I walk alongside my clients to achieve greater understanding of themselves and their values. To live a life of meaning and wellbeing while honoring the self.
I strive to create a safe, supportive, and judgment free environment to explore and move through feeling stuck. Using evidence-based strategies and a multicultural / social justice lens, I strive to connect my clients to solutions and insights that can lead to real change. I walk alongside my clients to achieve greater understanding of themselves and their values. To live a life of meaning and wellbeing while honoring the self.
(206) 466-0936 View (206) 466-0936
Photo of Meg McLaughlin, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Meg McLaughlin
Counselor, LMHC, MA
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98103  (Online Only)
I work with clients who want to create close, significant, supportive connections with others in order to be the best individual they can be.
I work with clients who want to create close, significant, supportive connections with others in order to be the best individual they can be.
(206) 455-9691 View (206) 455-9691
Photo of Michael J Rubbinaccio, Marriage & Family Therapist Associate in Seattle, WA
Michael J Rubbinaccio
Marriage & Family Therapist Associate, MA, LMFTA
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98101
For nearly 25 years in HR and communications, I have helped corporations with communication and relationship issues with employees. I now help individuals and relationships directly with life challenges. I believe communication is central to how we interact with the world and how the world interacts with us--from our loved ones at home to strangers on the street--and it informs how I do therapy. I use Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) while drawing on communications theory, and an Integrated Couples Therapy perspective, taking parts of EFT and Gottman Therapy, for a phased approach to relationship therapy.
For nearly 25 years in HR and communications, I have helped corporations with communication and relationship issues with employees. I now help individuals and relationships directly with life challenges. I believe communication is central to how we interact with the world and how the world interacts with us--from our loved ones at home to strangers on the street--and it informs how I do therapy. I use Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) while drawing on communications theory, and an Integrated Couples Therapy perspective, taking parts of EFT and Gottman Therapy, for a phased approach to relationship therapy.
(206) 590-3900 View (206) 590-3900
Photo of Steph Tigert, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Steph Tigert
Counselor, MA, LMHC
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98119
As human beings, we are prone to intense joy, deep sorrow and a wide spectrum of emotions in between. Therapy is a place to learn how to navigate these changing terrains of life. As a therapist, I will come alongside you to listen, reflect, speak to, and bear witness to your particular experiences in life. I believe many personal struggles are relational and that we experience healing through genuine connection with ourselves and others. I'm passionate about helping people move from a life of fear and feeling stuck to a life of freedom, feeling grounded, and developing a growing trust in yourself and others.
As human beings, we are prone to intense joy, deep sorrow and a wide spectrum of emotions in between. Therapy is a place to learn how to navigate these changing terrains of life. As a therapist, I will come alongside you to listen, reflect, speak to, and bear witness to your particular experiences in life. I believe many personal struggles are relational and that we experience healing through genuine connection with ourselves and others. I'm passionate about helping people move from a life of fear and feeling stuck to a life of freedom, feeling grounded, and developing a growing trust in yourself and others.
(206) 457-1701 View (206) 457-1701
Photo of Bryan Brown, Mental Health Counselor Associate in Seattle, WA
Bryan Brown
Mental Health Counselor Associate, MA, LMHCA
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98107  (Online Only)
I work alongside individuals, couples, and groups who are seeking to address experiences of grief, depression, anxiety, relational conflict, racial trauma, LGBTQIA+ issues, spiritual abuse, PTSD, and COVID related issues. Together we will explore the ways that therapy can assist you towards achieving your personal goals for wellbeing. Healing and transformation is a lifestyle and we all require assistance in cultivating a life that will help us navigate unavoidable difficulties. Isolation works against these efforts which is why seeking therapy is truly one of the best things you can offer yourself.
I work alongside individuals, couples, and groups who are seeking to address experiences of grief, depression, anxiety, relational conflict, racial trauma, LGBTQIA+ issues, spiritual abuse, PTSD, and COVID related issues. Together we will explore the ways that therapy can assist you towards achieving your personal goals for wellbeing. Healing and transformation is a lifestyle and we all require assistance in cultivating a life that will help us navigate unavoidable difficulties. Isolation works against these efforts which is why seeking therapy is truly one of the best things you can offer yourself.
(206) 208-2356 View (206) 208-2356
Photo of Stacia Noll, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Seattle, WA
Stacia Noll
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LICSW, RYT
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98116  (Online Only)
As both a therapist and yoga teacher, I believe we have the capacity to access our own inner knowing and sense of awareness. Sometimes we just need some redirection about how to get there. I believe in a compassionate approach to therapy, which expands resiliency, encourages self-agency, and invites discovery.
As both a therapist and yoga teacher, I believe we have the capacity to access our own inner knowing and sense of awareness. Sometimes we just need some redirection about how to get there. I believe in a compassionate approach to therapy, which expands resiliency, encourages self-agency, and invites discovery.
(773) 840-0306 View (773) 840-0306
Photo of Julia Hofman, Mental Health Counselor in Seattle, WA
Julia Hofman
Mental Health Counselor, LMHC
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98107  (Online Only)
My goal is to create a space for you to bring yourself and be heard. I enjoy getting to know the people I work with and if you choose the work with me, the rich/complicated narrative of how you came to be who you are today. My role is to be present with you and to hold space so that together we can find each next step in your ongoing journey. We can enter this space together and create something new. A different way of seeing, a different path in a stuck area of life or an expanded understanding and grace for yourself. Bring yourself, as you are, with your strengths and stress and struggles.
My goal is to create a space for you to bring yourself and be heard. I enjoy getting to know the people I work with and if you choose the work with me, the rich/complicated narrative of how you came to be who you are today. My role is to be present with you and to hold space so that together we can find each next step in your ongoing journey. We can enter this space together and create something new. A different way of seeing, a different path in a stuck area of life or an expanded understanding and grace for yourself. Bring yourself, as you are, with your strengths and stress and struggles.
(425) 620-4527 View (425) 620-4527
Photo of MEND Seattle in Seattle, WA
MEND Seattle
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98118
As an organization we recognize that QTBIPoC folx tend to experience disproportionate amounts of mental health disparities due to large gaps in our current mental healthcare system. Here at MEND we believe that part of addressing those gaps is through the consistency of our intersectional feminist lens. In an effort to promote equity, we are expanding our team and client population to include members who hold identities that have not traditionally been offered at MEND. And while we center supporting QTBIPoC folx, we also offer services to those who do not hold these identities.
As an organization we recognize that QTBIPoC folx tend to experience disproportionate amounts of mental health disparities due to large gaps in our current mental healthcare system. Here at MEND we believe that part of addressing those gaps is through the consistency of our intersectional feminist lens. In an effort to promote equity, we are expanding our team and client population to include members who hold identities that have not traditionally been offered at MEND. And while we center supporting QTBIPoC folx, we also offer services to those who do not hold these identities.
(206) 496-0786 View (206) 496-0786
Photo of Femeke Britschgi Cabernard, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Femeke Britschgi Cabernard
Counselor, PhD, LMHC, RPT, CCATPCA
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Seattle, WA 98107
Not accepting new clients
-CURRENTLY NOT ACCEPTING NEW CLIENTS - I am a Licensed Mental Health Counselor in the State of Washington with a Masters and PhD in Developmental Psychology from the University of Bern, Switzerland. I provide therapy to children, adolescents and their families. I have extensive and specialized training in Client-Centered Therapy and Play Therapy. I try to approach every child, adolescent, and family with an open mindset and give them the room to express themselves in whatever way they feel comfortable. I truly believe that every human being has an innate power to grow and become their best self.
-CURRENTLY NOT ACCEPTING NEW CLIENTS - I am a Licensed Mental Health Counselor in the State of Washington with a Masters and PhD in Developmental Psychology from the University of Bern, Switzerland. I provide therapy to children, adolescents and their families. I have extensive and specialized training in Client-Centered Therapy and Play Therapy. I try to approach every child, adolescent, and family with an open mindset and give them the room to express themselves in whatever way they feel comfortable. I truly believe that every human being has an innate power to grow and become their best self.
(206) 203-1068 View (206) 203-1068
Photo of Seattle Elder Connections, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Seattle Elder Connections
Counselor, MA, LMHC, CCM
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98107
If you are looking for support in dealing with your own changing life situation I offer individual counseling specializing in issues around aging and transitions. Consultation is available for the adult child who may be a caregiver or is wondering what the next steps could be or what community resources are available for an aging parent. Many adult children do not live near their parents or do not have the time to manage their parent's care. Having a local Geriatric Care Manager can ease some of the burden and worry around safety, care and placement concerns.
If you are looking for support in dealing with your own changing life situation I offer individual counseling specializing in issues around aging and transitions. Consultation is available for the adult child who may be a caregiver or is wondering what the next steps could be or what community resources are available for an aging parent. Many adult children do not live near their parents or do not have the time to manage their parent's care. Having a local Geriatric Care Manager can ease some of the burden and worry around safety, care and placement concerns.
(206) 539-1018 View (206) 539-1018
Photo of Christina Forsythe, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Christina Forsythe
Counselor, MS, LMHC
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98106  (Online Only)
Not accepting new clients
I believe each of us, deep down, hold our own answers to the issues we face. Sometimes we need an objective listener to ask new questions, suggest new skills, be supportive and coach us through tough times. Humans have a tremendous ability to handle the traumatic events in life. We build strategies to get us through the day. At some point, we might realize that these strategies no longer work and may even be causing more problems than they solve. This is when the support of a caring professional can help us find more efficient strategies to handle our lives.
I believe each of us, deep down, hold our own answers to the issues we face. Sometimes we need an objective listener to ask new questions, suggest new skills, be supportive and coach us through tough times. Humans have a tremendous ability to handle the traumatic events in life. We build strategies to get us through the day. At some point, we might realize that these strategies no longer work and may even be causing more problems than they solve. This is when the support of a caring professional can help us find more efficient strategies to handle our lives.
View
Photo of Isis L Aki, Counselor in Seattle, WA
Isis L Aki
Counselor, MA, LMHC
Verified Verified
Seattle, WA 98121  (Online Only)
I believe a strong connection built on trust is at the heart of therapy and life coaching and that this is more likely to help lead you towards recovery, personal growth and achievement of your therapeutic goals and successful outcomes in your life. Through dialogue and collaborative spirit we will work together to identify goals that can help you to a more rewarding life experience.
I believe a strong connection built on trust is at the heart of therapy and life coaching and that this is more likely to help lead you towards recovery, personal growth and achievement of your therapeutic goals and successful outcomes in your life. Through dialogue and collaborative spirit we will work together to identify goals that can help you to a more rewarding life experience.
(425) 382-7422 x1 View (425) 382-7422 x1

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in Seattle, WA

3,000+

Average cost per session

$150

Therapists in Seattle, WA who prioritize treating:

93% Anxiety
86% Depression
79% Relationship Issues
76% Self Esteem
72% Trauma and PTSD
71% Stress
69% Life Transitions

Average years in practice

9 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

70% Premera
53% Aetna
47% Regence

How Therapists in Seattle, WA see their clients

51% Online Only
49% In Person and Online

Gender breakdown

75% Female
21% Male
4% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in Seattle?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.