Therapists in Cincinnati, OH

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Photo of Adam M. Evans, Psychologist in Cincinnati, OH
Adam M. Evans
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45231
I am a Black male psychologist who has worked in private practice for nearly a decade. My clientele has consisted of individuals presenting with the following issues: mood, anxiety, sexuality, grief and loss, the coming out process of Black men, stigma, and chronic medical issues (HIV/AIDS)...to name a few. I strive to create an atmosphere of acceptance and trust within my practice. It is my belief that these areas are critical building blocks to foster, create, and nurture our clinical relationship to help you reach your optimal goals.
I am a Black male psychologist who has worked in private practice for nearly a decade. My clientele has consisted of individuals presenting with the following issues: mood, anxiety, sexuality, grief and loss, the coming out process of Black men, stigma, and chronic medical issues (HIV/AIDS)...to name a few. I strive to create an atmosphere of acceptance and trust within my practice. It is my belief that these areas are critical building blocks to foster, create, and nurture our clinical relationship to help you reach your optimal goals.
(513) 647-4208 View (513) 647-4208
Photo of Ashley Campbell, Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Ashley Campbell
Counselor, LPCC-S, LICDC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Cincinnati, OH 45242  (Online Only)
The first step in any change is realizing that you want or need a change in the first place. As a therapist, I utilize a strength-based approach to allow clients to learn and hone in on the skills they already possess in order to make the changes they desire in their lives. In our sessions, I will act like a mirror, helping you to gain insight, discover patterns, and learn about the obstacles that are in the way of your happiness. I am committed to helping my clients discover their goals and create a path to personal growth.
The first step in any change is realizing that you want or need a change in the first place. As a therapist, I utilize a strength-based approach to allow clients to learn and hone in on the skills they already possess in order to make the changes they desire in their lives. In our sessions, I will act like a mirror, helping you to gain insight, discover patterns, and learn about the obstacles that are in the way of your happiness. I am committed to helping my clients discover their goals and create a path to personal growth.
(513) 434-6007 View (513) 434-6007
Photo of Eva Sandmann, Licensed Professional Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Eva Sandmann
Licensed Professional Counselor, LPC
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45207
Eva Sandmann is a Licensed Professional Counselor in Ohio who has been practicing since 2018. She has a Master's of Science is in Mental Health Counseling from the University of Indianapolis. Eva offers counseling services for children, adolescents, young adults, and adults. She uses an eclectic approach to therapy. Eva utilizes theories based in cognitive behavioral theory, dialectical, behavioral therapy, play therapy, centra therapy, mindfulness, therapy, family systems therapy, and person-centered therapy.
Eva Sandmann is a Licensed Professional Counselor in Ohio who has been practicing since 2018. She has a Master's of Science is in Mental Health Counseling from the University of Indianapolis. Eva offers counseling services for children, adolescents, young adults, and adults. She uses an eclectic approach to therapy. Eva utilizes theories based in cognitive behavioral theory, dialectical, behavioral therapy, play therapy, centra therapy, mindfulness, therapy, family systems therapy, and person-centered therapy.
(513) 951-3603 View (513) 951-3603
Photo of Tracy McClorey, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Tracy McClorey
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LISW-S, MSW
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45202
Not accepting new clients
Therapy is about the process of change: Your change. Whether you wish to manage a life challenge; improve your mental health; heal from trauma; or address addictive behaviors, my role is to assist you in your journey. Importantly, we establish a therapeutic relationship, which is one that you feel safe and thus able to open up about your concerns, inner experiences, and life situations. We will engage in treatment goal setting, guided by the problems and concerns you have, as well as your aspirations for change and growth.
Therapy is about the process of change: Your change. Whether you wish to manage a life challenge; improve your mental health; heal from trauma; or address addictive behaviors, my role is to assist you in your journey. Importantly, we establish a therapeutic relationship, which is one that you feel safe and thus able to open up about your concerns, inner experiences, and life situations. We will engage in treatment goal setting, guided by the problems and concerns you have, as well as your aspirations for change and growth.
(513) 685-4563 View (513) 685-4563
Photo of Karen Beresh, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Karen Beresh
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LISW
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45202  (Online Only)
Hello, my name is Karen. I am an Independent Psychotherapist in Cincinnati, Ohio. I earned a Masters from the University of Pennsylvania through their advanced standing program in one year with a specialization on Mental Health and Addictions. Previous to that I earned a Bachelor's at Northern Kentucky University and graduated with honors. I place great pride and passion in helping individuals and couples that may be struggling with chronic stress, depression, anxiety, addiction, relationship issues, PTSD and complex trauma.
Hello, my name is Karen. I am an Independent Psychotherapist in Cincinnati, Ohio. I earned a Masters from the University of Pennsylvania through their advanced standing program in one year with a specialization on Mental Health and Addictions. Previous to that I earned a Bachelor's at Northern Kentucky University and graduated with honors. I place great pride and passion in helping individuals and couples that may be struggling with chronic stress, depression, anxiety, addiction, relationship issues, PTSD and complex trauma.
(513) 327-5393 View (513) 327-5393
Photo of Sherry Grooms, Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Sherry Grooms
Counselor, LPCC-S, LICDC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Cincinnati, OH 45242
Not accepting new clients
My counseling style is warm and collaborative, nonjudgmental and supportive. Working closely with each individual, I help build upon personal strengths to encourage healing and hope. For several years I have worked with all ages, treating effects of troublesome behaviors or moods, traumatic events, life-transition issues, crippling anxiety, or consuming substance issues. I use evidence based treatment strategies including (CBT) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, (DBT) Dialectical Behavioral Therapy, Motivational Interviewing, Reality Therapy and creative expression. I also offer a unique early intervention program often referred by schools and Probation Officers to address teen substance usage and encourage informed choices.
My counseling style is warm and collaborative, nonjudgmental and supportive. Working closely with each individual, I help build upon personal strengths to encourage healing and hope. For several years I have worked with all ages, treating effects of troublesome behaviors or moods, traumatic events, life-transition issues, crippling anxiety, or consuming substance issues. I use evidence based treatment strategies including (CBT) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, (DBT) Dialectical Behavioral Therapy, Motivational Interviewing, Reality Therapy and creative expression. I also offer a unique early intervention program often referred by schools and Probation Officers to address teen substance usage and encourage informed choices.
(513) 437-0634 View (513) 437-0634
Photo of Janaye Guess, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Janaye Guess
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW , LISW
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45208
I enjoy working with people who struggle with depression and/or anxiety. Ideally, their goals would be to improve their overall functioning and quality of life. My ideal client would be able to put in the necessary work to accomplish their goals. My therapy style is authentic, empathetic, and validating. I believe in incorporating various treatment modalities that are based on the individual needs of my clients.
I enjoy working with people who struggle with depression and/or anxiety. Ideally, their goals would be to improve their overall functioning and quality of life. My ideal client would be able to put in the necessary work to accomplish their goals. My therapy style is authentic, empathetic, and validating. I believe in incorporating various treatment modalities that are based on the individual needs of my clients.
(513) 845-3597 View (513) 845-3597
Photo of Serenity Therapy Services, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Serenity Therapy Services
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LISW-S
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45211
Thank you for showing interest in our services and congratulations on taking steps to improving your mental health. Overall our role is to assist you with processing and working through any significant life changes, past or current traumas, emotional or behavioral instability. We will assist you in making clear and reasonable goals for yourself and support you as you become a better you for yourself, family, friends etc. Serenity Therapy Services works with both adolescents and adults. Our therapy approach may change given the needs of a specific client. We are currently accepting new clients for evening and weekend appointments.
Thank you for showing interest in our services and congratulations on taking steps to improving your mental health. Overall our role is to assist you with processing and working through any significant life changes, past or current traumas, emotional or behavioral instability. We will assist you in making clear and reasonable goals for yourself and support you as you become a better you for yourself, family, friends etc. Serenity Therapy Services works with both adolescents and adults. Our therapy approach may change given the needs of a specific client. We are currently accepting new clients for evening and weekend appointments.
(513) 993-4459 View (513) 993-4459
Photo of Baker Counseling and Consulting Services, Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Baker Counseling and Consulting Services
Counselor, EdD, PCCS
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45231
The therapy environment is a safe space. Emotional, physical and psychological safety is critical when working to overcome trauma, work through anxiety and build resilience. My role is to provide a trusting therapeutic environment where you feel comfortable and empowered to create lasting and meaningful change.
The therapy environment is a safe space. Emotional, physical and psychological safety is critical when working to overcome trauma, work through anxiety and build resilience. My role is to provide a trusting therapeutic environment where you feel comfortable and empowered to create lasting and meaningful change.
(833) 200-4434 x2 View (833) 200-4434 x2
Photo of Olive Branch Behavioral and Consulting Services, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Olive Branch Behavioral and Consulting Services
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSW, LSW, LICDC-C
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45213
Not accepting new clients
Valante’ D. Jackson, MSW,LSW,LICDC-CS has been servicing multiple populations for over 25 yrs and is also an instructor at Cincinnati State. I practice an individualized approach and offer home based therapy based on need. I also offer a flexible schedule for clients.
Valante’ D. Jackson, MSW,LSW,LICDC-CS has been servicing multiple populations for over 25 yrs and is also an instructor at Cincinnati State. I practice an individualized approach and offer home based therapy based on need. I also offer a flexible schedule for clients.
(513) 270-2418 View (513) 270-2418
Photo of Dara Williams, Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Dara Williams
Counselor, MA, LPCC, NCC, BC-TMH
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45236  (Online Only)
Regardless of who you are or what you believe, life is a challenge. You may be experiencing grief, life transitions, or difficult relationships. Perhaps you are an older adult who is facing the loss of friends, loved ones, and your independence. Maybe you are dealing with physical pains and illnesses which leave you feeling depressed or anxious. My goal as your counselor is to empower you with tools to help you manage your life experiences in more productive ways. I use practical approaches and techniques geared towards supporting your goal of achieving mental and emotional wellness.
Regardless of who you are or what you believe, life is a challenge. You may be experiencing grief, life transitions, or difficult relationships. Perhaps you are an older adult who is facing the loss of friends, loved ones, and your independence. Maybe you are dealing with physical pains and illnesses which leave you feeling depressed or anxious. My goal as your counselor is to empower you with tools to help you manage your life experiences in more productive ways. I use practical approaches and techniques geared towards supporting your goal of achieving mental and emotional wellness.
(513) 318-4804 View (513) 318-4804
Photo of Angela Touchton, Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Angela Touchton
Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor, MEd, LPCC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Cincinnati, OH 45243  (Online Only)
Are you feeling a bit stuck, drained, or perhaps alone in your struggles? Does anxiety seem to be taking over, or are self-doubt and self-judgment weighing heavily on your shoulders? Maybe you're grappling with finding your purpose or battling feelings of un-deservingness or guilt. And if low motivation or depression has dimmed your spark, know that you're not alone. You deserve to feel better. That's why I'm here to offer support and guidance. Let's tackle these challenges together, working towards bringing more tranquility and healing into your life. You don't have to navigate this journey on your own. I'm here to help!
Are you feeling a bit stuck, drained, or perhaps alone in your struggles? Does anxiety seem to be taking over, or are self-doubt and self-judgment weighing heavily on your shoulders? Maybe you're grappling with finding your purpose or battling feelings of un-deservingness or guilt. And if low motivation or depression has dimmed your spark, know that you're not alone. You deserve to feel better. That's why I'm here to offer support and guidance. Let's tackle these challenges together, working towards bringing more tranquility and healing into your life. You don't have to navigate this journey on your own. I'm here to help!
(513) 902-1759 View (513) 902-1759
Photo of Virginia Reid, Psychologist in Cincinnati, OH
Virginia Reid
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45219
Not accepting new clients
As a licensed clinical psychologist I see my role as providing you with a safe, nonjudgmental and caring environment - a place where you can explore your struggles and better understand the obstacles that may be getting in the way of you achieving your goals. My approach is supportive, collaborative and validating. I see you as an active participant in your therapy - I come with experience and expertise but believe that you are the expert on your life. My role is to help empower you to build on your strengths so that you can better cope with the challenges you may be facing in your life.
As a licensed clinical psychologist I see my role as providing you with a safe, nonjudgmental and caring environment - a place where you can explore your struggles and better understand the obstacles that may be getting in the way of you achieving your goals. My approach is supportive, collaborative and validating. I see you as an active participant in your therapy - I come with experience and expertise but believe that you are the expert on your life. My role is to help empower you to build on your strengths so that you can better cope with the challenges you may be facing in your life.
(513) 806-2738 View (513) 806-2738
Photo of Karen Byerly-Lamm, Psychologist in Cincinnati, OH
Karen Byerly-Lamm
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45207
Dr. Byerly-Lamm is a licensed psychologist who received her Doctorate and Master of Clinical Psychology from Union Institute & University. She also holds a Master of Community Counseling and a Bachelor of Science in psychology from Xavier University. Additionally, she holds a license as a licensed professional clinical counselor with supervision designation (LPCC-S). Dr. Byerly-Lamm completed part of her doctoral internship training at Lindner Center of Hope, training in Marsha Linehan's Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT).
Dr. Byerly-Lamm is a licensed psychologist who received her Doctorate and Master of Clinical Psychology from Union Institute & University. She also holds a Master of Community Counseling and a Bachelor of Science in psychology from Xavier University. Additionally, she holds a license as a licensed professional clinical counselor with supervision designation (LPCC-S). Dr. Byerly-Lamm completed part of her doctoral internship training at Lindner Center of Hope, training in Marsha Linehan's Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT).
(513) 613-4318 View (513) 613-4318
Photo of Jennifer Day, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Jennifer Day
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MSSW, LSW
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45255
Waitlist for new clients
Life is an adventure, and sometimes you need a guide to help you read the map. That’s where I come in. I believe healing and improved mental health are possible for all people. By both accepting and changing ourselves, we can change the world around us. I am excited to partner with you in this process. I recognize the mind-body connection and seek to incorporate mindfulness (and eventually movement) into my practice. I am trained in Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) and several other therapeutic orientations including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and Motivational Interviewing (MI).
Life is an adventure, and sometimes you need a guide to help you read the map. That’s where I come in. I believe healing and improved mental health are possible for all people. By both accepting and changing ourselves, we can change the world around us. I am excited to partner with you in this process. I recognize the mind-body connection and seek to incorporate mindfulness (and eventually movement) into my practice. I am trained in Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) and several other therapeutic orientations including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and Motivational Interviewing (MI).
(513) 647-1396 View (513) 647-1396
Photo of Ziggy Cicchella, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
Ziggy Cicchella
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LISW
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
Cincinnati, OH 45208  (Online Only)
I am passionate about helping people turn pain from the past into power for the future. Practicing good self-care can seem so secondary when we must juggle school with employment with caring for loved ones and keeping up with housework. Together we will use coping skills, de-cluttering, and time management to put yourself first and improve productivity.
I am passionate about helping people turn pain from the past into power for the future. Practicing good self-care can seem so secondary when we must juggle school with employment with caring for loved ones and keeping up with housework. Together we will use coping skills, de-cluttering, and time management to put yourself first and improve productivity.
(513) 450-9149 View (513) 450-9149
Photo of David A Reeb, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in Cincinnati, OH
David A Reeb
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LISW-S
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45242
I enjoy working with individuals, families, and couples who are seeking to better understand how their relationships and emotional reactions are shaped by their experiences. Together we will explore how we continue to be impacted by the past, examining ways to break out of old, ineffective patterns of communication/reactions and identify and build upon your individual and family strengths to improve your future.
I enjoy working with individuals, families, and couples who are seeking to better understand how their relationships and emotional reactions are shaped by their experiences. Together we will explore how we continue to be impacted by the past, examining ways to break out of old, ineffective patterns of communication/reactions and identify and build upon your individual and family strengths to improve your future.
(513) 952-8608 View (513) 952-8608
Photo of Mina Santorsola Lockey, Psychologist in Cincinnati, OH
Mina Santorsola Lockey
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45226
You’re tired, anxious, overwhelmed, or feeling stuck. You’re going through the motions of the daily grind but missing out on being truly present and experiencing joy. You’re unsure about what steps to take to break free from old patterns, painful feelings, anxious thoughts, or critical beliefs about yourself. You don’t have to manage these thoughts and feelings on your own anymore. It’s time to let go of these unhealthy patterns and live a more fulfilled, authentic, intentional, and meaningful life.
You’re tired, anxious, overwhelmed, or feeling stuck. You’re going through the motions of the daily grind but missing out on being truly present and experiencing joy. You’re unsure about what steps to take to break free from old patterns, painful feelings, anxious thoughts, or critical beliefs about yourself. You don’t have to manage these thoughts and feelings on your own anymore. It’s time to let go of these unhealthy patterns and live a more fulfilled, authentic, intentional, and meaningful life.
(513) 995-7534 View (513) 995-7534
Photo of Nicole Simons, Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Nicole Simons
Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor
Verified Verified
Cincinnati, OH 45202  (Online Only)
Hello, I'm Nicole. Are you struggling to balance the many different areas in your life? Do you feel overwhelmed and discouraged? Are hardships having a negative impact on your life and well-being?
Hello, I'm Nicole. Are you struggling to balance the many different areas in your life? Do you feel overwhelmed and discouraged? Are hardships having a negative impact on your life and well-being?
(513) 847-9226 View (513) 847-9226
Photo of Angela Barber Joiner, Counselor in Cincinnati, OH
Angela Barber Joiner
Counselor, MA, LPCC-S
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Cincinnati, OH 45255
Empowering individuals to live their best life is my objective as a counselor. Together we will discover tools and strategies that will provide support in dealing with life-stressors and challenges. These tools and strategies will promote a greater level of emotional intelligence (self-awareness, self-regulation, internal motivation, empathy and social skills). Through my extensive training, knowledge, therapeutic successes and life experiences, I am confident that I can help you see and reach for the best in yourself and overcome the many obstacles that life may bring.
Empowering individuals to live their best life is my objective as a counselor. Together we will discover tools and strategies that will provide support in dealing with life-stressors and challenges. These tools and strategies will promote a greater level of emotional intelligence (self-awareness, self-regulation, internal motivation, empathy and social skills). Through my extensive training, knowledge, therapeutic successes and life experiences, I am confident that I can help you see and reach for the best in yourself and overcome the many obstacles that life may bring.
(513) 802-9473 View (513) 802-9473

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in Cincinnati, OH

1,000+

Average cost per session

$125

Therapists in Cincinnati, OH who prioritize treating:

91% Anxiety
87% Depression
72% Self Esteem
71% Trauma and PTSD
69% Relationship Issues
66% Coping Skills
62% Stress

Average years in practice

10 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

77% UnitedHealthcare UHC | UBH
74% Aetna
64% Optum

How Therapists in Cincinnati, OH see their clients

66% In Person and Online
34% Online Only

Gender breakdown

79% Female
20% Male
1% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in Cincinnati?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.