Therapists in New York, NY

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Photo of Ashley Quinones, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Ashley Quinones
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10035  (Online Only)
I have extensive experience in helping clients overcome anxiety, abuse, stress, depression, and trauma to achieve higher levels of insight, motivation, self-esteem, and confidence. For over 10 years I have worked with individuals in clinical and community settings throughout NYC. I believe that you are the expert of your story and that you have many strengths that will assist you in overcoming life's challenges. Taking the first step to sign up for a therapy consultation can take courage and I am proud of you for getting started!
I have extensive experience in helping clients overcome anxiety, abuse, stress, depression, and trauma to achieve higher levels of insight, motivation, self-esteem, and confidence. For over 10 years I have worked with individuals in clinical and community settings throughout NYC. I believe that you are the expert of your story and that you have many strengths that will assist you in overcoming life's challenges. Taking the first step to sign up for a therapy consultation can take courage and I am proud of you for getting started!
(646) 494-8472 View (646) 494-8472
Photo of Yahya M Madra, Licensed Psychoanalyst in New York, NY
Yahya M Madra
Licensed Psychoanalyst, PhD, LP
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10001
You may be in a dead-end and looking for a way out. Perhaps you are suffering from anxiety to a degree that you feel it is impossible for you to achieve your aspirations. Perhaps you are looking for a new way of being in the world that is more in tune with your unique history and experience.
You may be in a dead-end and looking for a way out. Perhaps you are suffering from anxiety to a degree that you feel it is impossible for you to achieve your aspirations. Perhaps you are looking for a new way of being in the world that is more in tune with your unique history and experience.
(646) 859-1623 View (646) 859-1623
Photo of Kristen Pfeffer, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Kristen Pfeffer
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LMSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10028
It’s time to start living with joy and intention. Although this may seem like an unattainable goal for you right now, with a supportive trusting hand you can live the way you want to live. Therapy should be a compassionate space for you to safely express the fullness of who you are and address what’s holding you back from participating fully in your life. Whether it's past trauma, relationship patterns that no longer serve you or fear of being your authentic self, we will identify your strengths and use them to create a life that excites you.
It’s time to start living with joy and intention. Although this may seem like an unattainable goal for you right now, with a supportive trusting hand you can live the way you want to live. Therapy should be a compassionate space for you to safely express the fullness of who you are and address what’s holding you back from participating fully in your life. Whether it's past trauma, relationship patterns that no longer serve you or fear of being your authentic self, we will identify your strengths and use them to create a life that excites you.
(646) 374-2256 View (646) 374-2256
Photo of Debra Jacoby in New York, NY
Debra Jacoby
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10038  (Online Only)
As a Narrative Life Coach, I want to help clients unlock the themes and patterns of their lives by asking probing questions and helping them work towards their next chapters. I offer weekly optional writing exercises and readings to support this journey. Narrative Coaching works well with anyone going through a painful loss or rejection, such as a death, break-up or divorce, as well as anyone who desires change but feels stuck or struggling. I'd like to help clients to realize their potentials by exploring possibilities, expanding their thinking and re-writing their narrative.
As a Narrative Life Coach, I want to help clients unlock the themes and patterns of their lives by asking probing questions and helping them work towards their next chapters. I offer weekly optional writing exercises and readings to support this journey. Narrative Coaching works well with anyone going through a painful loss or rejection, such as a death, break-up or divorce, as well as anyone who desires change but feels stuck or struggling. I'd like to help clients to realize their potentials by exploring possibilities, expanding their thinking and re-writing their narrative.
(607) 208-7736 View (607) 208-7736
Photo of Adelyn Melnikoff, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Adelyn Melnikoff
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10022
Adelyn is a seasoned therapist dedicated to guiding individuals toward a life of fulfillment, purpose, and personal growth. Specializing in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Adelyn brings extensive experience from working in Mt. Sinai Hospital system’s top CBT and therapy programs. She has treated a diverse set of adult clients across all life stages, navigating a wide range of psychiatric and medical challenges in both outpatient and inpatient settings. She specializes in trauma- and stressor-related disorders, anxiety, depression, OCD, ADHD, executive functioning, and the intersection of medical conditions and mental health.
Adelyn is a seasoned therapist dedicated to guiding individuals toward a life of fulfillment, purpose, and personal growth. Specializing in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Adelyn brings extensive experience from working in Mt. Sinai Hospital system’s top CBT and therapy programs. She has treated a diverse set of adult clients across all life stages, navigating a wide range of psychiatric and medical challenges in both outpatient and inpatient settings. She specializes in trauma- and stressor-related disorders, anxiety, depression, OCD, ADHD, executive functioning, and the intersection of medical conditions and mental health.
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Daniel Robert Lutzker
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10023
I enjoy variety and so have not limited my practice to any category nor do I confine myself to any school of thought. My work experience ranges from children to the elderly, from insight-oriented therapy to symptom removal and from short term to long term therapy. Similarly, I work with most kinds of problems from the psychological to the psychosomatic and even to the psychological aspects of medical illness.
I enjoy variety and so have not limited my practice to any category nor do I confine myself to any school of thought. My work experience ranges from children to the elderly, from insight-oriented therapy to symptom removal and from short term to long term therapy. Similarly, I work with most kinds of problems from the psychological to the psychosomatic and even to the psychological aspects of medical illness.
(646) 849-2035 View (646) 849-2035
Photo of Rebecca Greif, Psychologist in New York, NY
Rebecca Greif
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10019
I specialize in the treatment of anxiety, depression, relationship difficulties and low self-esteem. I have received extensive training in a range of empirically supported and cutting edge treatments including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) and Relational Psychotherapy. As a result of my broad training, I use a combination of therapeutic techniques to increase both self awareness and insight as well as skill building and coping strategies. I believe that the therapeutic relationship is a key component of treatment and aim to create a collaborative, open, and safe therapy environment.
I specialize in the treatment of anxiety, depression, relationship difficulties and low self-esteem. I have received extensive training in a range of empirically supported and cutting edge treatments including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) and Relational Psychotherapy. As a result of my broad training, I use a combination of therapeutic techniques to increase both self awareness and insight as well as skill building and coping strategies. I believe that the therapeutic relationship is a key component of treatment and aim to create a collaborative, open, and safe therapy environment.
(646) 576-7674 View (646) 576-7674
James McGeveran
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, MA, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10010
In my many years of advanced study and clinical work I have developed a practical, solution-oriented approach to mental health treatment. I believe that no one treatment model or therapeutic approach works for everyone. My extensive experience and rigorous training have enabled me to integrate numerous approaches to tailor treatments to the needs of each client's unique experiences and circumstances. I blend numerous therapeutic models and approaches- or stick to just one- depending on the person I am working with and the goals they have for our work together.
In my many years of advanced study and clinical work I have developed a practical, solution-oriented approach to mental health treatment. I believe that no one treatment model or therapeutic approach works for everyone. My extensive experience and rigorous training have enabled me to integrate numerous approaches to tailor treatments to the needs of each client's unique experiences and circumstances. I blend numerous therapeutic models and approaches- or stick to just one- depending on the person I am working with and the goals they have for our work together.
(646) 387-9377 View (646) 387-9377
Photo of Laura Venuto, Psychologist in New York, NY
Laura Venuto
Psychologist, PsyD, MSEd, MA
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10001  (Online Only)
Are you a new mom or contemplating motherhood? Pregnant, and feeling nervous or blue? Or, perhaps you recently had a baby and are feeling overwhelmed? At a time we are expected to be joyous, many women are enduring stress: hormonal fluctuations, professional/personal role changes, feelings of loss of a previous life, tension in relationships with family members, sleep deprivation and isolation. As a psychologist with 15 years experience, I am uniquely positioned to help women as they contemplate issues relating to motherhood. You can also join my support groups for new/2nd time mothers at the 92Y Parenting Center.
Are you a new mom or contemplating motherhood? Pregnant, and feeling nervous or blue? Or, perhaps you recently had a baby and are feeling overwhelmed? At a time we are expected to be joyous, many women are enduring stress: hormonal fluctuations, professional/personal role changes, feelings of loss of a previous life, tension in relationships with family members, sleep deprivation and isolation. As a psychologist with 15 years experience, I am uniquely positioned to help women as they contemplate issues relating to motherhood. You can also join my support groups for new/2nd time mothers at the 92Y Parenting Center.
(929) 325-2352 View (929) 325-2352
Photo of Alyssa Zimmerman, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Alyssa Zimmerman
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10011  (Online Only)
As a Licensed Clinical Social Worker, I take an integrative and innovative approach to therapy, emphasizing the therapeutic relationship, radical non-judgment, and mindfulness. My focus is on working with individuals managing mood disorders, navigating life transitions, and healing from trauma. I also welcome those interested in gaining insight, self-awareness, setting long-term goals, and exploring existential issues. I work with motivated adults who are willing to ask themselves challenging questions, use doubt and uncertainty as opportunities for growth, and make genuine, meaningful changes in their lives.
As a Licensed Clinical Social Worker, I take an integrative and innovative approach to therapy, emphasizing the therapeutic relationship, radical non-judgment, and mindfulness. My focus is on working with individuals managing mood disorders, navigating life transitions, and healing from trauma. I also welcome those interested in gaining insight, self-awareness, setting long-term goals, and exploring existential issues. I work with motivated adults who are willing to ask themselves challenging questions, use doubt and uncertainty as opportunities for growth, and make genuine, meaningful changes in their lives.
(347) 384-5527 View (347) 384-5527
Photo of Jason Duncan, Psychologist in New York, NY
Jason Duncan
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10017
I am a psychologist providing therapy and assessment services for children through adults. I have extensive clinical experience and am an expert Cognitive Behavioral Therapist. I’ve been trained by top therapy institutes, am a board member for well accomplished CBT organizations, and run the official podcast for the national CBT organization. I strive to regularly advance my knowledge and provide leading scientific treatments. I specialize in the treatment of anxiety, depression, panic, OCD, trauma, stress, insomnia, ADHD, defiance, and work/school issues. Many of my clients lead busy lives; therefore, I offer evening appointments.
I am a psychologist providing therapy and assessment services for children through adults. I have extensive clinical experience and am an expert Cognitive Behavioral Therapist. I’ve been trained by top therapy institutes, am a board member for well accomplished CBT organizations, and run the official podcast for the national CBT organization. I strive to regularly advance my knowledge and provide leading scientific treatments. I specialize in the treatment of anxiety, depression, panic, OCD, trauma, stress, insomnia, ADHD, defiance, and work/school issues. Many of my clients lead busy lives; therefore, I offer evening appointments.
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Photo of Jonah Glassman, Licensed Master Social Worker in New York, NY
Jonah Glassman
Licensed Master Social Worker, LMSW
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
New York, NY 10023
It can be difficult to access the fulfillment we all deserve when it feels like we are up against a world that does not understand or value us in our entireties. I believe that the space that you and I co-create can serve as a springboard for meaningful processing of this difficulty and—ultimately—the rich, self-determined life you want to live. While centering your experiences, even those that are most challenging, I bring unconditional openness, warmth, and humor.
It can be difficult to access the fulfillment we all deserve when it feels like we are up against a world that does not understand or value us in our entireties. I believe that the space that you and I co-create can serve as a springboard for meaningful processing of this difficulty and—ultimately—the rich, self-determined life you want to live. While centering your experiences, even those that are most challenging, I bring unconditional openness, warmth, and humor.
(347) 835-4490 View (347) 835-4490
Photo of Erin Iwanusa, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Erin Iwanusa
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, PMH-C, CDWF
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
New York, NY 10016
Erin is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker specializing in anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), grief and loss, fertility, and pregnancy loss. Erin specializes in working with clients from adolescence to adulthood. She is a certified Daring Way Facilitator, a highly experiential methodology based on the research of Dr. Brené Brown, focusing on self-compassion, shame resilience, and vulnerability. Erin is also a Gottman trained therapist providing couples' therapy.
Erin is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker specializing in anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), grief and loss, fertility, and pregnancy loss. Erin specializes in working with clients from adolescence to adulthood. She is a certified Daring Way Facilitator, a highly experiential methodology based on the research of Dr. Brené Brown, focusing on self-compassion, shame resilience, and vulnerability. Erin is also a Gottman trained therapist providing couples' therapy.
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Photo of Ellen Fries, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Ellen Fries
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, Ellen Fries, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10024
The strains of living can feel overwhelming at times, and the pleasures of life and relationships difficult to access and sustain. We can find ourselves stuck in recurring patterns and fears that do not serve us well, feeling helpless in carving new pathways for emotional waters to flow. Finding the time and a place to attend to our inner longings is a step in acknowledging the need for a partner in this search. We become who we are through relationships, and learn more satisfying ways through new relationships.
The strains of living can feel overwhelming at times, and the pleasures of life and relationships difficult to access and sustain. We can find ourselves stuck in recurring patterns and fears that do not serve us well, feeling helpless in carving new pathways for emotional waters to flow. Finding the time and a place to attend to our inner longings is a step in acknowledging the need for a partner in this search. We become who we are through relationships, and learn more satisfying ways through new relationships.
(646) 762-0963 View (646) 762-0963
Photo of Liz Gaeta, Counselor in New York, NY
Liz Gaeta
Counselor, LMHC, NCC
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10011
Waitlist for new clients
My goal as a therapist is to create a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment that allows you to identify and explore whatever thoughts, feelings, or concerns you find yourself facing. My style is collaborative, warm, humorous, and interactive, which allows me to quickly establish a supportive and strong relationship with clients. Together we will identify goals that focus on your wellbeing, seek to create the changes you want, and help you to live a happier, more balanced life.
My goal as a therapist is to create a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment that allows you to identify and explore whatever thoughts, feelings, or concerns you find yourself facing. My style is collaborative, warm, humorous, and interactive, which allows me to quickly establish a supportive and strong relationship with clients. Together we will identify goals that focus on your wellbeing, seek to create the changes you want, and help you to live a happier, more balanced life.
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Photo of Ellen I Rubin, Psychologist in New York, NY
Ellen I Rubin
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10023
Thank you for your interest. I am a licensed psychologist in practice for over 20 years. I have experience working with and enjoy helping people of many ages from adolescence to late adulthood about a range of emotional difficulties that include depression, anxiety, phobias, body-image issues, and eating disorders. I am experienced with both short- and long-term individual and couples therapy, and I am a trained hypnotherapist. I believe that everyone has the potential to feel better about themselves and to get past self-created and learned limitations
Thank you for your interest. I am a licensed psychologist in practice for over 20 years. I have experience working with and enjoy helping people of many ages from adolescence to late adulthood about a range of emotional difficulties that include depression, anxiety, phobias, body-image issues, and eating disorders. I am experienced with both short- and long-term individual and couples therapy, and I am a trained hypnotherapist. I believe that everyone has the potential to feel better about themselves and to get past self-created and learned limitations
(646) 480-7440 View (646) 480-7440
Photo of Will Higdon-Sudow, Clinical Social Work/Therapist in New York, NY
Will Higdon-Sudow
Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10019
As a member of the LGBTQ+ community and a queer therapist, I believe that therapy is different for every individual. My passion for understanding people and relationships has always been driven by curiosity. I primarily work with LGBTQ+ individuals and couples and have experience working with survivors of childhood sexual abuse. As a career changer, my previous career in advertising and fashion informs my extensive experience working with clients in the performing arts and other creative fields.
As a member of the LGBTQ+ community and a queer therapist, I believe that therapy is different for every individual. My passion for understanding people and relationships has always been driven by curiosity. I primarily work with LGBTQ+ individuals and couples and have experience working with survivors of childhood sexual abuse. As a career changer, my previous career in advertising and fashion informs my extensive experience working with clients in the performing arts and other creative fields.
(347) 227-1963 View (347) 227-1963
Photo of Elizabeth Crossfield, Marriage & Family Therapist in New York, NY
Elizabeth Crossfield
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10022
Do you miss feeling appreciated? Does he refuse to answer questions? Does she ever stop criticizing? Are you apprehensive and struggling to trust? Do you feel a lack of sexual desire? Fighting over sexual frequency? I can assist you break the negative loop. Feel love again. Feel intimate again. I am a highly qualified and experienced couples therapist with advanced training in marital and family counseling. I am easy to talk to and skilled at creating tools that encourage healthy relationships among couples and families. We rebuild your relationship by providing new communication approaches that promote empathy and flexibility.
Do you miss feeling appreciated? Does he refuse to answer questions? Does she ever stop criticizing? Are you apprehensive and struggling to trust? Do you feel a lack of sexual desire? Fighting over sexual frequency? I can assist you break the negative loop. Feel love again. Feel intimate again. I am a highly qualified and experienced couples therapist with advanced training in marital and family counseling. I am easy to talk to and skilled at creating tools that encourage healthy relationships among couples and families. We rebuild your relationship by providing new communication approaches that promote empathy and flexibility.
(332) 248-1284 View (332) 248-1284
Photo of Gabrielle Kaminetzky, Psychologist in New York, NY
Gabrielle Kaminetzky
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10025
“I’m so sad.” “I’m stuck.” “I’m lonely.” “I hate my life.” “I’m nervous about everything.” If these sentiments sound familiar, you have just taken the first step toward change. I have specialized training in the treatment of anxiety, depression, and complex trauma. I have unique experience in treating men and women with relationship issues as well as those contemplating, or in the process of, divorce. I have worked extensively with religiously observant individuals of the Catholic and Jewish faith, negotiating the tension between modern contemporary life and religious practice.
“I’m so sad.” “I’m stuck.” “I’m lonely.” “I hate my life.” “I’m nervous about everything.” If these sentiments sound familiar, you have just taken the first step toward change. I have specialized training in the treatment of anxiety, depression, and complex trauma. I have unique experience in treating men and women with relationship issues as well as those contemplating, or in the process of, divorce. I have worked extensively with religiously observant individuals of the Catholic and Jewish faith, negotiating the tension between modern contemporary life and religious practice.
(646) 992-3363 View (646) 992-3363
Photo of Samuel Selinger in New York, NY
Samuel Selinger
MFA, PhD
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10025
In my experience, some people come to therapy for specific symptoms, but many people come to treatment because of a pervasive feeling that something is not right or not working. They may feel they are not living the life they want, or can’t enjoy the life they have, or that they have lost touch with a part of themselves. They may have unfinished business from their childhood, or feel stuck continually repeating the same patterns in their relationships.
In my experience, some people come to therapy for specific symptoms, but many people come to treatment because of a pervasive feeling that something is not right or not working. They may feel they are not living the life they want, or can’t enjoy the life they have, or that they have lost touch with a part of themselves. They may have unfinished business from their childhood, or feel stuck continually repeating the same patterns in their relationships.
(646) 663-4205 View (646) 663-4205

How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in New York, NY

3,000+

Average cost per session

$200

Therapists in New York, NY who prioritize treating:

94% Anxiety
89% Depression
85% Relationship Issues
78% Self Esteem
67% Trauma and PTSD
66% Stress
63% Coping Skills

Average years in practice

12 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

78% Aetna
62% UnitedHealthcare UHC | UBH
60% Cigna and Evernorth

How Therapists in New York, NY see their clients

59% In Person and Online
41% Online Only

Gender breakdown

78% Female
21% Male
1% Non-Binary

FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in New York?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.