The assumption that everything biological evolved for a specific purpose is based upon the assumption that evolution itself is perfect.
This assumption is false.
Dreams have been described as dress rehearsals for real life, opportunities to gratify wishes, and a form of nocturnal therapy. A new theory aims to make sense of it all.
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The human clitoris. Bigger than commonly supposed
It’s a mystery worthy of Miss Marple herself. The clitoris vanishes every few generations and then needs to be rediscovered. Sometimes, this rescue from obscurity is to considerable fanfare. Why does this keep happening?
First, don’t panic. A vital anatomical structure is not really vanishing--it just disappears from anatomical textbooks every so often. Second—don’t just take my word for it--test this for yourself. Go into any decent bookshop and check out the medical anatomy section. Look up “clitoris” in the pictorial index. I guarantee that roughly half of the medical textbooks—ones that are used to train doctors--will disagree with the other half. One half will label, as if complete, a structure they will call the clitoris that is actually a wholly external organ. This is in fact the clitoral glans--a highly sensitive part of the clitoris—but definitely not the whole thing. The remaining textbooks will detail a far more complex structure, about four inches in length, mostly internal, and with a variety of nerve pathways, complex mapping onto the sensory cortex of the brain, and a host of integrated organelles. Are half the female population notably different from the other half? No, they are not.
I have heard it said that the clitoris was invented in the 1960s, but this is just a joke playing on the sexual ignorance of a sexually repressed previous generation. In the sixteenth century Fallopia described clitoral structure--while Galen denied it existed. In modern medicine the complex, and largely internal, structure of the clitoris was documented (1) in 1851. Moving forward a hundred years, clitoral complexity was re-described in 1949 - showing a large organ that wrapped around a (potentially) inserted penis (2). However, many textbooks have been slow to catch up with research. In the early part of this century Helen O’Connell’s team (3) produced beautifully rendered MRI scans showing the size and complexity of the clitoris in three dimensions, now examinable in state of actual arousal (figure 1).
Every time this happens there is much excitement—and sometimes opposition. I have regularly given talks to interested folk—some of whom are biologists—who tell me that this is the first that they have heard of clitoral size and complexity. On a roughly monthly cycle I return a proposed paper on a peer-reviewed journal--where I am one of the reviewing peers—for making this omission, and direct the authors to relevant texts.
The eminent physiologist Roy Levin once told me that the clitoris was an “Iceberg organ, 7/8th s of it is always hidden”. Levin is one of the world’s leading scholars on this topic (4). Any work that does not reference him here has been very poorly researched. Why then is the size and complexity of the clitoris not more widely known? I think I know part of the reason.
Flowers at Midnight
Men want a magic button that will make their partners satisfied — i.e. orgasm during sex--and when this doesn’t happen there is a tendency to regard the female as somehow broken or inferior. Sigmund Freud was responsible for some of this mischief with his notion that clitoral (glans) orgasms were somehow immature. Sometimes, this view of females as imperfect copies of males in sexual terms can extend to a general theory about female sexuality.
This is because what works for men does not work for women, at least not every time. It’s as if I found some flowers at midnight and concluded that they must be faulty because the petals were closed. This 'flowers at midnight' view finds its fullest expression in the by - product theory of female orgasm.
The appearance of complex design in nature is explained by adaptation — the gradual fitting to the environment of traits that increase reproductive success. Some complex structures are the result of direct Darwinian selection. Some others exist because they piggy back on other adaptations. These structures have no functions in their own right, they make no contribution to fitness. The by-product theory of female orgasm argues that female orgasm exists only as a by-product of male orgasm and an analogy is drawn here with male nipples.
It’s a well-known factoid that we all start as female embryos and structures that will eventually grow into breasts remain vestigial in males. The by-product just-so story then proceeds to argue that because males (allegedly) needed sensitive penises to reward sexual behaviour, females then got a free ride (as it were) with an enjoyable but functionless clitoris. The late palaeontologist Steven Jay Gould (5) and his protégé Lloyd (6) championed the idea, first proposed by Symons (7), that female orgasm stands in relation to male orgasm as male nipples do to female ones.
But this analogy stinks. A nipple is a structure, whereas an orgasm is an event. Often, quite a dramatic event. The great biologist Bob Trivers once quipped that “One has to wonder how often Steve [Gould] has witnessed this blessed event to regard it as by-product”. That comment may be a tad unkind. However, a relevant point was raised. Male nipples are small functionless structures and the by-product account invites us to think of clitorises as smaller non-functional penises. But this is wrong on several counts.
"No man should marry until he has studied anatomy and dissected at least one woman." Honore de Balzac.
First, the clitoris is not a tiny vestigial penis — it is larger than an (unerect) penis and, as I have emphasised, it is also a complex organ with at least eighteen distinct interacting functional parts including muscular, erectile, and sensitive tissues. The nerves in question map to their own specific regions in the female brain’s somatosensory cortex — which is not at all like those of male brains (8). Nothing like this can be said of male nipples. Second, clitorises do things. They are the seat of female orgasm. The difference can be put this way; men never demand nipples.
Are orgasms important things? The by-product account says no, these things are not biologically important. In fact, by-product advocates claim that women are lucky to ever get orgasms at all (6, 7). Frustrated women are set aside - according to the by-product account the clitoris did not evolve under its own selection pressure and can therefore not be expected to work properly.
But perhaps these scholars are mistaken. Perhaps the clitoris is not a broken or imitation penis, but instead is a highly sensitive, beautifully designed, measuring instrument. Knowledge of its true complex structure prompts this view, especially its nature when aroused - as depicted in three - dimensional sonography in 2009 by Buisson and Foldés (9 and figure 1).
At this point an advocate of the by-product account is likely to bring up the fact that penetrative intercourse, without additional stimulation, is inefficient in generating orgasm in females. Well, this argument does not bear close examination either. As Carol Wade is reported to have said, “Sex is not a soccer game — the use of hands is permitted” (10). It might be noted in passing that the use of hands during sex to please partners is common in our primate relatives as well (11).
If the female sexual system is choosy about when, where and how orgasm occurs then we need to pay attention to that choosiness (12). It might tell us important things about our biology, as well as helping individuals to be happier in their sex lives. It is also vital to have good scientific knowledge to help combat the confusion and pain associated with female genital mutilation in its many forms — and to help us understand some of the reasons prompting these mutilations.
One thing that science seems to tell us is that females evolved under their own selection pressures and are not simply inadequate versions of males.
Even if we have cleared up the event/structure confusion—does that prove that female orgasms do something and if so, what? No, not yet. This is where things become a lot less certain and is a topic deserving of separate treatment.
References
1) Kobelt, G. L. (1851). De l'appareil du sens génital des deux sexes dans l'espèce humaine et dans quelques mammifères, au point de vue anatomique et physiologique, traduit de l’allemand par Kaula H, Berger-Levrault et fils, Strasbourg et Paris (1851) (1re éd. allemande: 1844).
2) Dickinson, R. L. (1949). Human sex anatomy: A topographical hand atlas.
3) O'Connell, H. E., Sanjeevan, K. V., & Hutson, J. M. (2005). Anatomy of the clitoris. The Journal of urology, 174(4), 1189-1195.
4) Levin, R. J. (2004). An orgasm is… who defines what an orgasm is?. Sexual and Relationship therapy, 19(1), 101-107.
5) Gould, S. J. (1991). Male nipples and clitoral ripples. Bully for brontosaurus, 124-38
6) Lloyd, E. A. (2005). The case of the female orgasm: Bias in the science of evolution. Harvard University Press.
7) Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality.
8) Di Noto, P. M., Newman, L., Wall, S., & Einstein, G. (2013). The Hermunculus: What Is Known about the Representation of the Female Body in the Brain? Cerebral Cortex, 23(5), 1005-1013.
9) Foldes, P., & Buisson, O. (2009). REVIEWS: The Clitoral Complex: A Dynamic Sonographic Study. The journal of sexual medicine, 6 (5), 1223-1231.
10) Tavris, C. (1993). The mismeasure of woman. Feminism & Psychology, 3(2), 149-168.
11) Dixon, A. F. (2012). Primate Sexuality: Comparative studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes and Human Beings. 2nd Edition.
12) King, R., & Belsky, J. (2012). A typological approach to testing the evolutionary functions of human female orgasm. Archives of sexual behavior, 41(5), 1145-1160.
References
I am indebted to scholar Kate LaRocque for finding the source for that striking clitoris image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clitoris_anatomy_labeled-en.jpg
The assumption that everything biological evolved for a specific purpose is based upon the assumption that evolution itself is perfect.
This assumption is false.
Not at all. However evolution by natural selection is the only non-magical mechanism to explain apparent design in nature. Perfection is rarely achieved--because perfection is not needed to reproduce. Having said that, many natural designs are of startling beauty and intricacy. Orgels second rule ("evolution is smarter than you are") abounds.
Let's agree to disagree :-)
are perfect. There aren't any "immature" parts or broken parts.
Thank you for your article. The whole defective penis theory has always annoyed me. I not only orgasm with a penis, I am capable of many at one time. All the males I have ever been with are one time wonders. How sad!!
I have also read that an orgasm changes the ph balance of the uterus making it more habital for sperm. The more orgasms the better chance sperm has to servive such an enviroment. Have you heard of this?
I am one of those rare males that can experience multiple orgasms.
Of course, not to the dramatic level that females experience, but it is nice just the same.
Kinsey found some males with very short refraction periods. There is some interesting work on what factors could modify this--but it not something I study directly
Thanks for your comments. Many women seem capable of multiple orgasms. Why? We don't know, but it certainly seems to be a thing worth investigating. One of the things our team is looking at is the possibility of Ph changes following orgasm--if you have any particular studies in mind then please link to them--its always possible that we missed something.
multiple orgasms and I have never.....not....had one/many. I guess that is unusual from everything I read. I saw a program where the investigators found that orgasm serves a purpose of moving the sperm to the egg.
I don't think anyone will ever find out why we are orgasmic.....so many variables.
I grew up with no information about sex; I think that worked in my favor in that I simply enjoyed my body....no hangups, as it were.
Its certainly an interesting puzzle. Do you happen to have a reference for the program in question? there are several that have been mentioned to me over the years--but it is still a work in progress.
Hi, Dr. King: Unfortunately, I do not remember the program I watched the sexuality program on; it was last year. It was supposedly the latest cutting-edge research to date....it was fascinating.....visual images of sperm's journey in the woman's body.....There were 2 doctor's performing the research. If I come across the program again I will let you know.
Sincerely, Kate
Sophomore at 66
Because I wrote about my life and won a scholarship!
Dr. King, I am not aware of the study that orgasm changes ph in the vaginal canal and uterus. I read this in "Sex at Dawn". I had hoped you could further elaorate on this matter.
I am ever curious when it comes to female libido. I am glad us women are finally getting the attention we deserve when it comes to our sexuality.
Again, thank you.
Thanks for the thoughts. I remeber Ryan (in Sex at Dawn) mentions acidity around the cervix--and that semen provides some measure of protection against this. If I remember correctly (I dont have the book beside me) he says that female orgasm helps to rapidly transport sperm through this hostile environment. This may be true--but it remains to be shown. It is certainly something we are following up.
Female libido is certainly fascinating. Like female orgasm--no culture is neutral about it--for similar reasons. Some cultures deny its existence, some extol it. Our culture bizzarely manages to contain both extremes.To me this suggests a highly facultative--ie responsive to environment--set of features. Teasing out these features gives a researcher plenty of material to work with.
Let's be careful not to conflate the question of whether the clitoris is functional with the question of whether orgasm is functional. It's a point that Elizabeth Lloyd makes (and then makes the mistake of committing, but that's a separate issue), and it's worth bearing in mind. The clitoris could be responsible for assisting in arousal and pleasure and a non-adaptive orgasms.
Absolutely. One thing at a time. My point here is merely that the by-product account loses a great deal of its rhetorical force once one has some basic anatomical knowledge. This by no means establishes that orgasms are funtional. Not yet. However, this blog thread has not finished. Stay tuned.
The orgasm is totally functional to me, without it what would be the point or motovation to have sex? Sure sex is fun and pleasurable, but being monogomous for 15 years now I don't find my husband exciting enough to have sex with without great rewards!! If I did not have orgasms and usually more than one, I would never have sex with him!
Thanks for the thoughts. What critics (Gould, Lloyd etc) would say is that (apparently) only men need to be motivated by pleasurable reward to have sex. I obviously (I hope its obvious?) think that this is incorrect but the reasons are interesting. At least--I hope you find them interesting, more blog posts to follow.
non-adaptive mean?! The clitoris has a "gazillion" nerve endings; of course it is responsible for arousal and pleasure!
Much ado about nothng, I think :)
What critics (Lloyd, Gould et al) mean is that they think that the clitoris did not evolve under its own selection pressure. it should be obvious that I think that they are mistaken--but I have not gone into detail yet.
Waitin on your next article Dr. King. I am very interested in your work and what you have to day. Thanx.
Thanks for your thoughts. There will be more to come. Subscribe! It makes me feel wanted.
Thank you for your article!! Regarding "function," what about the fact that secretion of oxytocin, while it happens with various kinds of emotional connections, is greatly secreted during female orgasm in complement to the secretion of vasopressin and some oxytocin in the male? Those of us who are learning about oxytocin are fascinated by its effects. And many women certainly feel the effects of it re breastfeeding and re orgasm. Orgasm/oxytocin = feelings of emotional closeness to male/sexuality via oxytocin allows for more emotional vulnerability/risk and therefore the relaxation effect of the oxytocin also, means women are often able to initiate discussion in sensitive areas after sexuality? I have spoken to many couples who have their best, emotionally connected conversations after sexual vulnerability and the attendant feelings of emotional connection, love , and closeness. Many I know are using over the counter oxytocin for the treatment of anxiety and for increasing emotional connection in children with attachment issues. Again, thanks!! Now, please help women understand even more re cervical mucus and the changing position of the cervix in the vaginal canal during ovulation vs at other times. Too many women are completely ignorant of how they work and too many are using contraception they wouldn't find necessary if they were tracking ovulation and mucus and the cervix!!!
Thanks for your thoughts. Yes, oxytocin and its various actions are going to be the subject of several follow-ups. Investigating its action is a key part of my research. Stay tuned--and tell me what you think.
I am very glad to hear that Dr. King!! We need real, well researched information in this area, as I am concerned many are risking unknown effects given not enough information and research, and the availability of over the counter oxytocin at this time! Thank you very much!!!
dancer, singer, writer, poetess.....this clinical stuff makes me cringe.....ahh, for romance.
Excellent article. I appreciate how Dr. Robert King states in his opening paragraph "The clitoris vanishes every few generations and then needs to be rediscovered," and then addresses some of the main "mysteries" of female orgasm. He brings about a good point at the end, asking if female orgasms DO something, and if so - what? As a researcher of female orgasm myself, I took a different meaning than most others would of this question. I took it to mean "What do female orgasms DO for the woman/man experiencing it? (i.e: what are the benefits of a woman having an orgasm?"
I've studies with a group of educators in female orgasm - The Welcomed Consensus - www.welcomed.com. They actively research and experience female orgasm through clitoral stimulation on a daily basis. They call it "Deliberate Orgasm" also known as "DOing." As a woman I found it quite liberating to discover their information. Scientifically I know they would concur with many of the points made in this article. They offer extensive experiential knowledge as well.
Hi Yvonne. Thanks for your thoughts and the interesting links. Yes, it was through talking to folk like the ones you link to that I got the idea that what was officially possible in orgasms--i.e. what we could create in the lab--was not the same as the lived experience of women. I think that this might matter a lot. I look forward to your vies on my other posts.
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