Beyond the Visible-Invisible Disability Binary

For too long, we’ve relied on a simple binary to describe disability: Is it visible or invisible, concealable or not? Although these terms are common, they don’t quite capture the fluid, multisensory nature of disability. In a new publication, Marine Granjon, Pauline Rasset, and I propose a new framework. Instead of a binary, we propose the disability observability spectrum.

The most common term we use, “visibility,” is ocularcentric—it prioritizes sight as the only way to perceive difference, ignoring other sensory channels like sound. For instance, you might not see a speech disorder, but you may hear it. "Concealment" is an active behavior, not a permanent state. Not everyone with a concealable disability chooses to hide it, nor should they.

This is why I use the term "observability spectrum.” The verb form—"observed"—shifts the focus away from the individual and places it squarely on the social interaction. Whether a disability is observed isn't inherent to the condition; it's a dynamic interaction that depends on the individual, the observer, and the context.

What Moves Us Along the Spectrum?

Whether a disability is observed at any point in time depends on a combination of factors within the individual, the observer, and the context.

The Individual: The prototypicality of a disability—that is, the extent to which the disability type aligns with public stereotypes about what a disability is—affects whether it is observed. A wheelchair user is the international symbol of disability, appearing on accessible bathroom stalls and parking spaces. Contrasted with a less prototypical disability like facial paralysis, individuals using wheelchairs are more likely to be recognized as disabled.

A disability may not directly affect the person’s appearance but may involve the use of assistive tools or service animals that nonetheless make the disability observable. For example, you probably can’t look at someone and know they have epilepsy most of the time, but if they get a service dog to alert them to seizure activity, their disability would then be observable.

Disability course—whether symptoms change over time—influences observability. Someone with multiple sclerosis may be observed as disabled during a flare when using a scooter, but not when they are walking unaided during remission.

The Observer: Not all observers notice the same things. Someone with “insider knowledge"—perhaps because they have a disability themselves or know someone who does—might notice subtle cues that others miss.

The Context: Our environment changes everything. Inaccessible spaces make a disability more observable. A wheelchair user’s disability might not be observed during a Zoom job interview, but it becomes observed the moment they arrive for an in-person meeting.

The Observability Spectrum Influences Ableism Pathways

Where a person falls on the observability spectrum predicts the specific “flavor” of ableism they are likely to encounter. By integrating this spectrum with key psychology theories, we can map out distinct pathways to ableism: paternalism or delegitimization.

The disability observability spectrum predicts specific stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory behaviors depending on the extent to which a disability is observed.

Source: Kathleen Bogart

Paternalistic Pathway (Observable Side of the Spectrum)

The Stereotype Content Model theorizes that we form stereotypes about people based on two dimensions: their perceived warmth (e.g., friendliness and trustworthiness) and their perceived competence (e.g., capability and independence). When a disability is readily observed, people tend to stereotype the individual as warm but incompetent.

Building on this theory, the Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes (BIAS) Map indicates stereotypes trigger a specific set of emotions and behaviors. Stereotypes of warmth and incompetence lead people to feel pity toward those with more observed disabilities, which leads to paternalistic behaviors like unsolicited help and assumptions of inability. One study found that people with observable disabilities were six times more likely to be subjected to unwanted help than those with nonobservable disabilities.

Bias Essential Reads

Disability Is Often Excluded From Social-Personality Studies

The Virtual Body That Made Bias Worse

Delegitimization Pathway (Less Observable Side of the Spectrum)

Recent research suggests this pattern is reversed toward people with less observed disabilities—they are perceived as more competent but colder than those with observed disabilities. These stereotypes are associated with feelings of distrust and suspicion toward those with less observed disabilities. People in this category are twice as likely as those with observable disabilities to face accusations of “faking it” to exploit the system.

Zone of Ambiguity

What about those who do not fall neatly into the visible/invisible binary? When disabilities fall in the middle of the observability spectrum, they land in a zone of ambiguity. Consider the example of narcolepsy, which is not a prototypical disability and involves symptoms that can wax and wane. If a person with narcolepsy falls asleep in class, observers may not attribute it to a disability. They may be incorrectly written off as a bored or lazy student.

Real-World Consequences

Whether a person’s disability falls in the paternalism pathway, the delegitimization pathway, or somewhere in between has important implications for daily life.

The extent to which a disability is observed predicts real world consequences.

Source: Kathleen Bogart

• Identity. People on the observable side of the spectrum are more likely to identify as disabled and form a positive disability identity. In contrast, people on the other end of the spectrum may internalize the invalidation they experience, believing that they don’t “count” as disabled.
• Salience to the public: People whose disabilities are less observed experience civil inattention—the privacy afforded to nonstigmatized people in public spaces—and “passing privilege.” Yet, this can feel like erasure of a part of one’s experience or identity. In contrast, those whose disabilities are observed are hypervisible—they will be recognized and remembered in public.
• Perception of symptoms: Those with more observable disabilities may experience disability spread, a bias where people wrongly assume a disability impacts more domains than it actually does. When people assume that a person who uses a wheelchair also has intellectual disability, that’s disability spread. On the nonobservable end of the spectrum, others may minimize symptoms and their impact.
• Accommodations: Access to accommodations in the workplace or school may also diverge according to the extent to which the disability is observed. Those whose disabilities are not observed may be denied accommodations, are expected to provide a higher burden of proof, and when accommodations are given, they may be insufficient. Those whose disabilities are observed may experience paternalism in the form of low expectations or overprotection.
• Healthcare: People on the less observed end of the spectrum frequently face invalidation in medical settings. For many of these disabilities, medical tests or biomarkers are not available. They may be subconsciously threatening to healthcare providers because they are more difficult to assess and treat with the tools provided in their training. On the other end of the spectrum, diagnostic overshadowing—when a healthcare provider wrongly attributes symptoms to an existing disability rather than investigating other causes—occurs for people whose disabilities are observed.

By moving beyond the binary, we can start to address the specific ways ableism manifests in daily life. Paternalism and delegitimization are different ableism pathways rooted in the same observability spectrum. Recognizing this spectrum is the first step toward creating research, policies, and environments that respond to our needs with respect and validation, rather than pity or suspicion.

A version of this post also appears on Substack.