"The Arrogant Ape": A Strong Case Against Human Superiority

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In her landmark book, The Arrogant Ape: The Myth of Human Exceptionalism and Why It Matters, Dr. Christine Webb makes clear that the notion that we're the most important show in town—smarter than, better than, more important than, uniquely exceptional, above, and separate from other animals—has got it all wrong. This distorted view of humans in which we use ourselves as some sort of standard to which individuals of other species should strive is not only arrogant, but singularly ill-informed.¹ We clearly need a new mindset, a paradigm shift in which we de-center ourselves and work alongside other species to change the dismal road on which we are currently and recklessly traveling. Christine offers that and much more.

Marc Bekoff: Why did you write The Arrogant Ape?

Christine Webb: The Arrogant Ape grew out of a course of the same name that I taught at Harvard for many years. I saw firsthand how unlearning the myth of human exceptionalism—the belief that humans are fundamentally separate from and superior to other forms of life—transformed my students’ lives, and my own. The world became more animate and alive, a place we felt connected to and responsible for. Those experiences inspired me to explore these ideas more deeply and bring them to a popular audience.

MB: How does your book relate to your background and interests?

CW: I was originally drawn to studying our closest living primate relatives because they straddle the supposed boundary between “human” and “animal.” They’ve taught many things, but especially how artificial and flawed those boundaries really are. More recently, my work has turned toward understanding how cultural norms and values shape scientific knowledge itself: the questions we ask, the methods we devise, and the assumptions that often go unquestioned when we study other animals and the environment.

MB: Who do you hope to reach?

CW: I hope my book appeals to a broad readership interested in animals and the environment, human psychology and evolution, and contemporary nature and science writing. I also hope it reaches scientists themselves—those committed to a science that collaborates with other species and the environment, and that confronts the anthropocentric legacies of their particular field.

Source: Avery/with permission.

MB: What are some of the topics you consider, and what are some of your major messages?

CW: The Arrogant Ape argues that human exceptionalism lies at the root of the ecological crisis. This pervasive mindset gives humans a sense of dominion over the rest of nature, entitling us to exploit the earth and other species for our own exclusive benefit. And it is everywhere and nowhere all at once—so deeply embedded in society that most people barely notice it. I show how human exceptionalism gets reinforced through our education systems, economic schemes, political campaigns, religious sermons, advertising, media, and even everyday language. Yet unlike the visible causes of environmental damage (such as fossil fuels or deforestation), this worldview often goes unnamed and unquestioned. Much of its power is drawn from this invisibility—the taken-for-granted belief that humans are obviously superior to other species. I believe human exceptionalism is the most powerful unspoken belief of our time.

One of the first things I emphasize is that this mindset is not biologically innate; it is culturally learned. Children, for example, don’t automatically prioritize humans over other animals. This worldview is acquired as we grow up immersed in societies that constantly privilege humans, and it has deep historical roots in Western thought—from Aristotle’s scala naturae and its religious expression in the Great Chain of Being to secular adaptations in Enlightenment philosophy and beyond.

I also examine how human exceptionalism infiltrates science itself. Much research comparing human and animal cognition stacks the deck against other species. We compare the intelligence of captive, socially deprived primates with autonomous Western humans, then draw sweeping conclusions about human uniqueness. We use human intellect as the gold standard, asking how well other species mimic us instead of how they think in their own terms. Engaging seriously with the minds of other species is still frequently labeled “anthropomorphic” and inappropriate (what my colleagues and I call “the empathy taboo”), even though anthropologists have long realized that understanding human participants and cultures requires empathy. I believe many of these considerations apply not just to how we study and understand other animals, but also plants, fungi, and other forms of life.

Another thread of the book explores how anthropocentrism has fueled an essentially competitive, hierarchical view of nature. This, in turn, obscures our understanding of evolution and of ourselves in a way that perpetuates notions of human exceptionalism. I revisit Charles Darwin’s work, highlighting the role of sympathy and interdependence (In On the Origin of Species, Darwin explains that he uses the term “struggle for existence” in a "large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another.") Competition and cooperation are intertwined in nature, yet our cultural focus on the former has led to misinterpretations of evolutionary theory. Humans (and other animals) are often portrayed as acting only in their own self-interest—an overall view sometimes used to justify the anthropogenic crises we face today. By adopting a less anthropocentric perspective, we can better understand the richness of life and reimagine our place within it.

Finally, I explore how Indigenous communities around the world have employed and protected this less hierarchical, less anthropocentric way of relating to and understanding nature, and how these knowledge systems can help point the way towards the kind of science that does not fall victim to human exceptionalism’s biases.

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MB: How does your work differ from others on similar topics?

CW: There are many books about how humans relate to other species and the environment. But strangely few take a sustained, in-depth look at human exceptionalism itself. That’s surprising given how central the idea has been in shaping the dominant culture, and given the growing scholarly critique of anthropocentrism in recent years. The book takes a 360-degree view of human exceptionalism: tracing its history and development, exploring how it permeates scientific practice, and linking it directly to the social and ecological crises of our time.

MB: Are you hopeful that if people learn more about the myth of human exceptionalism, they’ll treat other animals and the environment with greater respect?

CW: I want this book to help people see and experience other animals and the environment differently—as more intelligent and aware, more interconnected, more wondrous. And I do think how people perceive the world influences how they behave within that world. The Arrogant Ape invites its readers to take meaningful action: to fight for the rest of nature, to practice better science, and to live with greater humility. If human exceptionalism can be learned, it can also be unlearned. And that gives me hope!