Therapists in Toronto, ON

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Photo of Floyd Spence - Top Life Coach in Toronto, ON
Floyd Spence - Top Life Coach
CEC, RP
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M2N
I am a life coach, speaker, and registered psychotherapist who is known for getting my clients breakthrough results. As a top life coach with over two decades of experience, I help high achievers develop the mindset and habits required to overcome internal and external barriers to their success, so they may reach their highest potential and achieve their ambitious goals. As your coach, I will help you identify your purpose, clarify your vision, build confidence, develop mental toughness, improve your leadership skills, set ambitious goals, and manage your significant relationships so that you may WIN in life, career and business.
I am a life coach, speaker, and registered psychotherapist who is known for getting my clients breakthrough results. As a top life coach with over two decades of experience, I help high achievers develop the mindset and habits required to overcome internal and external barriers to their success, so they may reach their highest potential and achieve their ambitious goals. As your coach, I will help you identify your purpose, clarify your vision, build confidence, develop mental toughness, improve your leadership skills, set ambitious goals, and manage your significant relationships so that you may WIN in life, career and business.
(647) 957-9607 View (647) 957-9607
Photo of Nathalia Casadei, Pre-Licensed Professional in Toronto, ON
Nathalia Casadei
Pre-Licensed Professional, MPsy
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M4P  (Online Only)
Do you struggle with anxiety, work stress, or relationship struggles that affect your ability to regulate your emotions? Do you feel overwhelmed by just getting through the day? Do you hope that life could be better? Now more than ever, people are feeling uncertain about managing stress at work, navigating relationship struggles, and finding fulfillment and joy. Welcome to a space where healing begins and where you're met with understanding, and compassion. I'm here to guide you on a journey of resilience, self-discovery and empowerment by providing tools, insights and support for you to thrive.
Do you struggle with anxiety, work stress, or relationship struggles that affect your ability to regulate your emotions? Do you feel overwhelmed by just getting through the day? Do you hope that life could be better? Now more than ever, people are feeling uncertain about managing stress at work, navigating relationship struggles, and finding fulfillment and joy. Welcome to a space where healing begins and where you're met with understanding, and compassion. I'm here to guide you on a journey of resilience, self-discovery and empowerment by providing tools, insights and support for you to thrive.
(647) 697-3525 View (647) 697-3525
Photo of Nikolai Pavlov, Registered Psychotherapist in Toronto, ON
Nikolai Pavlov
Registered Psychotherapist, RP, UKCP
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M6K  (Online Only)
Waitlist for new clients
Nikolai is an internationally trained psychotherapist with a nursing background who has worked in the mental health field since 2009 first in Russia and then in Canada. He provides a safe, supportive, and confidential environment for one-on-one virtual therapy work. He offers personalized sessions that allow individuals to explore their feelings, thoughts, behaviours, and relationships. Psychotherapy and supervision services are available in both English and Russian.
Nikolai is an internationally trained psychotherapist with a nursing background who has worked in the mental health field since 2009 first in Russia and then in Canada. He provides a safe, supportive, and confidential environment for one-on-one virtual therapy work. He offers personalized sessions that allow individuals to explore their feelings, thoughts, behaviours, and relationships. Psychotherapy and supervision services are available in both English and Russian.
(647) 494-9245 View (647) 494-9245
Photo of Jean Marlow, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Jean Marlow
Registered Social Worker, MSW, RSW
Verified Verified
Toronto, ON M5S
I believe in people’s resiliency and that each of us is capable of growth, and reaching new goals and possibilities. I am a registered social worker, psychotherapist, and my approach is one of calm, non-judgmental and strength-based collaboration. Drawing on resources such as narrative, emotion and cognitive behavioural therapies and psychodynamic concepts, I work with people who are experiencing pain in their lives, and together we explore and address the issues affecting their sense of well-being. They develop the insight and skills to solve problems, initiate change and work toward attaining their goals.
I believe in people’s resiliency and that each of us is capable of growth, and reaching new goals and possibilities. I am a registered social worker, psychotherapist, and my approach is one of calm, non-judgmental and strength-based collaboration. Drawing on resources such as narrative, emotion and cognitive behavioural therapies and psychodynamic concepts, I work with people who are experiencing pain in their lives, and together we explore and address the issues affecting their sense of well-being. They develop the insight and skills to solve problems, initiate change and work toward attaining their goals.
(647) 952-1859 View (647) 952-1859
Photo of Cynthia Johnston, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Cynthia Johnston
Registered Social Worker, BSW, MEd, RCC, RSW
Verified Verified
Toronto, ON M6G  (Online Only)
If you are struggling with bulimia, or other disordered eating, you have likely promised yourself time and time again that this will be the last time that you engage in these behaviours, assuring yourself that you know what to do and that you can stop anytime. You have managed a few days, weeks or months symptom-free, but the behaviours have always returned. Although it may be difficult to imagine getting through life's ups and downs without your disordered eating, I can help you to develop new ways of coping and to achieve lasting recovery. And you will set the pace of your recovery.
If you are struggling with bulimia, or other disordered eating, you have likely promised yourself time and time again that this will be the last time that you engage in these behaviours, assuring yourself that you know what to do and that you can stop anytime. You have managed a few days, weeks or months symptom-free, but the behaviours have always returned. Although it may be difficult to imagine getting through life's ups and downs without your disordered eating, I can help you to develop new ways of coping and to achieve lasting recovery. And you will set the pace of your recovery.
(416) 922-3311 View (416) 922-3311
Photo of Amandine Akaliza, Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) in Toronto, ON
Amandine Akaliza
Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying), MACP, BA
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M4V  (Online Only)
Taking the first steps into therapy can be both challenging and empowering, and I am here to provide guidance and support as you embark on this transformative journey. My name is Amandine and I am completing my practicum under clinical supervision as a Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying).
Taking the first steps into therapy can be both challenging and empowering, and I am here to provide guidance and support as you embark on this transformative journey. My name is Amandine and I am completing my practicum under clinical supervision as a Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying).
(647) 424-3184 View (647) 424-3184
Photo of Sierra Goldfinger, Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) in Toronto, ON
Sierra Goldfinger
Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying), MSc
Verified Verified
Toronto, ON M5V  (Online Only)
Hi, my name is Sierra and I am a Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) who works with individuals, couples and families. I support clients working on a variety of topics, including anxiety, boundaries, people pleasing, self esteem, confidence, relational issues (familial, platonic and romantic) and life transitions. During my work with clients, I support folks in better understanding patterns of behaviour to deepen their understanding of themselves and what they want for their future.
Hi, my name is Sierra and I am a Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) who works with individuals, couples and families. I support clients working on a variety of topics, including anxiety, boundaries, people pleasing, self esteem, confidence, relational issues (familial, platonic and romantic) and life transitions. During my work with clients, I support folks in better understanding patterns of behaviour to deepen their understanding of themselves and what they want for their future.
(365) 536-1778 View (365) 536-1778
Photo of Denise Wallis, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Denise Wallis
Registered Social Worker, MSW, RSW
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M4K
Asking for help can be a very difficult choice to make. I believe that it is important for you to feel comfortable speaking with your counsellor and being open with them. My belief is that everyone is an expert on their own life and that my role is to help guide you to a solution that will work for you. I have over ten years experience working with youth and adults to overcome a wide variety of challenges.
Asking for help can be a very difficult choice to make. I believe that it is important for you to feel comfortable speaking with your counsellor and being open with them. My belief is that everyone is an expert on their own life and that my role is to help guide you to a solution that will work for you. I have over ten years experience working with youth and adults to overcome a wide variety of challenges.
(647) 492-5965 View (647) 492-5965
Photo of Tianna Home, Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) in Toronto, ON
Tianna Home
Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying), MACP
Verified Verified
5 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M5H
Are you feeling overwhelmed navigating stress, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, or burnout? Are you tired of feeling this way and hoping to make a meaningful change? I can help you build healthy coping strategies and skills to support you in making the changes you want to see in your life. As someone who has struggled with mental health challenges myself, I understand the courage it takes to seek help, and I am here to support you every step of the way. In our sessions, you can expect free-flowing conversation, guided by both curiosity and compassion.
Are you feeling overwhelmed navigating stress, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, or burnout? Are you tired of feeling this way and hoping to make a meaningful change? I can help you build healthy coping strategies and skills to support you in making the changes you want to see in your life. As someone who has struggled with mental health challenges myself, I understand the courage it takes to seek help, and I am here to support you every step of the way. In our sessions, you can expect free-flowing conversation, guided by both curiosity and compassion.
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Photo of Dynamic Health Collaborative Holistic Mental Health Clinic in Toronto, ON
Dynamic Health Collaborative Holistic Mental Health Clinic
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M3H
The ideal therapy client seeks support in navigating life's challenges and achieving personal growth. They may struggle with issues like anxiety, depression, or relationship difficulties. Their needs include empathy, validation, and practical coping strategies to manage their emotions and behaviors effectively. Their goal is to enhance their well-being, find inner peace, and cultivate healthier relationships. Ultimately, they want to gain insight into themselves, develop resilience, and live a more fulfilling life. They pursue therapy because they value their mental health and are committed to their own self-improvement journey.
The ideal therapy client seeks support in navigating life's challenges and achieving personal growth. They may struggle with issues like anxiety, depression, or relationship difficulties. Their needs include empathy, validation, and practical coping strategies to manage their emotions and behaviors effectively. Their goal is to enhance their well-being, find inner peace, and cultivate healthier relationships. Ultimately, they want to gain insight into themselves, develop resilience, and live a more fulfilling life. They pursue therapy because they value their mental health and are committed to their own self-improvement journey.
(647) 492-2764 View (647) 492-2764
Photo of Centre for MindBody Health, Psychologist in Toronto, ON
Centre for MindBody Health
Psychologist, PhD, CPsych
Verified Verified
Toronto, ON M5N
The Centre for MindBody Health can help you get the treatment you need for the life you want to live. We provide individual, couple, family and group therapies. All clinical services are under the direction of Dr. Shelley McMain and Dr. Shari Geller, Registered Clinical Psychologists and recognized experts in the fields of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT), Mindfulness and Self-Compassion. We practice proven and effective approaches to treatment and believe in your ability to make the changes you’re seeking in your life.
The Centre for MindBody Health can help you get the treatment you need for the life you want to live. We provide individual, couple, family and group therapies. All clinical services are under the direction of Dr. Shelley McMain and Dr. Shari Geller, Registered Clinical Psychologists and recognized experts in the fields of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT), Mindfulness and Self-Compassion. We practice proven and effective approaches to treatment and believe in your ability to make the changes you’re seeking in your life.
(855) 624-4596 View (855) 624-4596
Photo of Stacian (Staci) Watts, Registered Psychotherapist in Toronto, ON
Stacian (Staci) Watts
Registered Psychotherapist, MSc, RP
Verified Verified
Toronto, ON M6P  (Online Only)
"Our feelings are our most genuine paths to knowledge." Audre Lorde. Using various evidence-based therapeutic modalities, I'm here to help you trust and listen to yourself more deeply and with self-compassion, while guiding you to apply the tools you need to lead a life in alignment with your values, dreams and goals. From an anti-oppressive lens we explore and make meaning of your unique story within your cultural and relational contexts. I am committed to ensuring my clients feel heard and respected in our sessions and will meet you where you are and move at the pace that feels right for you.
"Our feelings are our most genuine paths to knowledge." Audre Lorde. Using various evidence-based therapeutic modalities, I'm here to help you trust and listen to yourself more deeply and with self-compassion, while guiding you to apply the tools you need to lead a life in alignment with your values, dreams and goals. From an anti-oppressive lens we explore and make meaning of your unique story within your cultural and relational contexts. I am committed to ensuring my clients feel heard and respected in our sessions and will meet you where you are and move at the pace that feels right for you.
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Photo of Betty Ann Streeter, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Betty Ann Streeter
Registered Social Worker, MSW, RSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M4V  (Online Only)
I chose social work as a career because I believed in the founding principles of the profession such as the dignity and worth of every human being and I support his/her right to self-determination. I work with all participants in ADOPTION to achieve their full identity as individuals and as family members. I assist expectant birth parents in considering the impact on their own lives of making and refining an adoption plan for their child. I prepare prospective adoptive parents for the role and special tasks of adoptive parenthood.
I chose social work as a career because I believed in the founding principles of the profession such as the dignity and worth of every human being and I support his/her right to self-determination. I work with all participants in ADOPTION to achieve their full identity as individuals and as family members. I assist expectant birth parents in considering the impact on their own lives of making and refining an adoption plan for their child. I prepare prospective adoptive parents for the role and special tasks of adoptive parenthood.
(647) 370-9603 View (647) 370-9603
Photo of Momo Ando, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Momo Ando
Registered Social Worker, MSW, RSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M6G
Life can get complicated, and I know how difficult it can be to reach out for help. This first step is often one of the most difficult parts, so I hope you are giving yourself the biggest pat on the back as you’re reading this! My experience is with young adults, and children and teens (and their families), who are struggling with symptoms of anxiety, depression, relationship issues, and/or life transitions. I also have experience working with neurodiverse folks of all ages, who often feel misunderstood by those around them, including healthcare professionals like therapists.
Life can get complicated, and I know how difficult it can be to reach out for help. This first step is often one of the most difficult parts, so I hope you are giving yourself the biggest pat on the back as you’re reading this! My experience is with young adults, and children and teens (and their families), who are struggling with symptoms of anxiety, depression, relationship issues, and/or life transitions. I also have experience working with neurodiverse folks of all ages, who often feel misunderstood by those around them, including healthcare professionals like therapists.
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Photo of Danielle Rovinski-Bannon, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Danielle Rovinski-Bannon
Registered Social Worker, BAH, MSW, LMSW, RSW
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M5R
I believe that you deserve a safe and confidential space where you can feel heard, understood, and respected. When undergoing a personal challenge, you may feel like the world is a dark place. Together, we will work at uncovering the root cause of the challenges you face. We will draw upon the strengths you have exhibited through past experiences, and acquire new skills in order to manage your emotions and enable you to reach your goals.
I believe that you deserve a safe and confidential space where you can feel heard, understood, and respected. When undergoing a personal challenge, you may feel like the world is a dark place. Together, we will work at uncovering the root cause of the challenges you face. We will draw upon the strengths you have exhibited through past experiences, and acquire new skills in order to manage your emotions and enable you to reach your goals.
(855) 590-4242 View (855) 590-4242
Photo of Leah Trout, Registered Social Worker in Toronto, ON
Leah Trout
Registered Social Worker, MSW, RSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M6G
My aim as a therapist is to provide compassion and presence for you to feel emotionally safe enough to move through growth and change. It can be difficult opening up to someone new. I am experienced in helping my clients process and make sense of their experiences, and offer experiential tools and practices to help them restore calm and regulation. Each and every one of us is unique and there isn’t one approach that fits everyone equally. I therefore work integratively, utilizing aspects of Compassionate Inquiry, Somatic Experiencing, Internal Family Systems and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.
My aim as a therapist is to provide compassion and presence for you to feel emotionally safe enough to move through growth and change. It can be difficult opening up to someone new. I am experienced in helping my clients process and make sense of their experiences, and offer experiential tools and practices to help them restore calm and regulation. Each and every one of us is unique and there isn’t one approach that fits everyone equally. I therefore work integratively, utilizing aspects of Compassionate Inquiry, Somatic Experiencing, Internal Family Systems and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.
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Photo of Luigi Garde, Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) in Toronto, ON
Luigi Garde
Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying), HBA, RPQ
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M6K  (Online Only)
When getting out of bed in the morning feels challenging, I aim to hear your story and understand the root source of your shadows. I will be here to provide guidance and clarity, for you to pursue this journey with yourself safely.
When getting out of bed in the morning feels challenging, I aim to hear your story and understand the root source of your shadows. I will be here to provide guidance and clarity, for you to pursue this journey with yourself safely.
(905) 287-4514 View (905) 287-4514
Photo of M. Luisa Amenta, Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying) in Toronto, ON
M. Luisa Amenta
Registered Psychotherapist (Qualifying)
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M5B  (Online Only)
Are you struggling with anxiety, depression, self-esteem, or other challenges? You have taken the first step, the hardest one - reaching out for help. With me, you’ll find a safe, non-judgmental, compassionate space. Together, we will explore your potential, discover your strengths, and strive for profound transformation as we achieve your goals. My approach is person-centred, psychodynamic and mindfulness-based, and ultimately tailored to meet your needs. Therapy helps you understand yourself. Every person is as unique as their story, and I am here to hear yours.
Are you struggling with anxiety, depression, self-esteem, or other challenges? You have taken the first step, the hardest one - reaching out for help. With me, you’ll find a safe, non-judgmental, compassionate space. Together, we will explore your potential, discover your strengths, and strive for profound transformation as we achieve your goals. My approach is person-centred, psychodynamic and mindfulness-based, and ultimately tailored to meet your needs. Therapy helps you understand yourself. Every person is as unique as their story, and I am here to hear yours.
(289) 319-0714 View (289) 319-0714
Photo of Ms. Wonders, Therapy for children, teens, adults, Psychologist in Toronto, ON
Ms. Wonders, Therapy for children, teens, adults
Psychologist, MA, CPsych
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M2N
Elif Wonders is a registered psychologist in North York, Toronto, & Mississauga, and director of the Wonders Psychology clinic.
Elif Wonders is a registered psychologist in North York, Toronto, & Mississauga, and director of the Wonders Psychology clinic.
(289) 302-6073 View (289) 302-6073
Photo of Nahaleh Moshtagh, Registered Psychotherapist in Toronto, ON
Nahaleh Moshtagh
Registered Psychotherapist, PhD
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Toronto, ON M2M  (Online Only)
Not accepting new clients
It is my passion to help women find their unique voices and individual paths in a world that is often male dominated and male normative. I like working with culturally diverse clients and consider myself an LGBTQ+ ally. I work with individual adults as well as couples. I see many people with experiences of different kinds of trauma who are in need of healing. This kind of work takes courage and patience on the part of both therapist and client. My work includes the best elements of different schools of therapy, as well as the wisdom of Eastern traditions.
It is my passion to help women find their unique voices and individual paths in a world that is often male dominated and male normative. I like working with culturally diverse clients and consider myself an LGBTQ+ ally. I work with individual adults as well as couples. I see many people with experiences of different kinds of trauma who are in need of healing. This kind of work takes courage and patience on the part of both therapist and client. My work includes the best elements of different schools of therapy, as well as the wisdom of Eastern traditions.
(289) 273-9012 View (289) 273-9012

See more therapy options for Toronto

How does your Counsellor compare?

Number of Counsellors in Toronto, ON

3,000+

Average cost per session

$150

Counsellors in Toronto, ON who prioritize treating:

93% Anxiety
87% Depression
84% Relationship Issues
84% Self Esteem
80% Stress
72% Coping Skills
69% Trauma and PTSD

Average years in practice

9 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

62% Green Shield Canada
61% SunLife
57% Canada Life | Great-West Life

How Counsellors in Toronto, ON see their clients

51% In Person and Online
49% Online Only

Gender breakdown

81% Female
16% Male
3% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counselling

How can I find a therapist in Toronto?

Search for nearby therapists or counsellors by inputting your city, postal code, or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or postal code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

Most Counsellors and Psychotherapists listed in the directory are certified by one of the main professional associations, mainly the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association (CCPA), and will have a Certified Canadian Counsellor (CCC) designation with their name. Social Workers listed in the directory must be registered members of the college specific to their province. To be listed in the directory, Psychologists must be registered with the psychological college specific to their province or territory.

Providers whose professional membership or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Given the considerable variation in professional regulation and prerequisites across Canadian provinces, some providers may possess significant professional qualifications without necessarily holding professional memberships or being obliged to acquire them. As a result, they may be selectively included without the "Verified" seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counsellor?

Psychologists, counsellors, psychotherapists and social workers can all provide counselling or talking therapy and have credentials and supervised, practical experience that enable them to do so in Canada.

Psychologists have a master's and/or doctoral degree and have passed both written and oral exams. Psychologists are able to complete mental health assessments and provide diagnostic information to clients as well as provide counselling therapy or psychotherapy. Counsellors and psychotherapists are expected to have a master's or doctoral degree in counselling psychology, social work, or a related mental health discipline and certification by a professional association, such as the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association. Registered Social Workers possess a Bachelor's or Master's degree in Social Work and where possible must be licensed or certified by the provincial government and/or regulatory college.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, the cost of a therapy session in Canada could be between $100 and $200. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

If you are struggling to access therapy due to budget constraints, you could also consider public funded mental health services. Some types of outpatient mental health services are covered by Medicare, provided these are performed by a licensed mental health professional in the provinces or territory you reside in and who accepts the assignment.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your postal code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Professionals licensed by regulatory colleges and those certified by associations such as the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association are obligated to uphold client confidentiality unless there is a legal reason that requires them to disclose information. Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship and only under specific circumstances, such as when there is the potential or known harm to the client or others, or a court order, will a therapist be obligated to break the agreement. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed during the initial consultation.