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The Olympics are here again and what a great time to reflect on the importance of sport in shaping girls' experiences in schools and the potential that it has for positively influencing physical, psychological, academic, and economic development. The power and grace demonstrated by the athletes in the freestyle moguls competition and the long-track speedskating is impressive and Canadians Jenn Heil, Cindy Klassen, and Clara Hughes are positive role models for young women. They each have shown grace under pressure, dedication to their sport, athletic excellence, and appreciation and respect for their fellow competitors. A recent New York Times blog points to more recently identified long-term positive impacts of Title IX and girls' involvement in sports. One author reported that increasing girls' sports participation had a direct effect on women's education and employment. Dr. Betsey Stephensen found that 20% increase in women's education and 40% of the rise in employment can be attributed to the changes initiated by Title IX. A second study found that the increase in girls' athletic participation caused by Title IX was associated with a 7% lower risk of obesity 20 to 25 years later.
Title IX of the U.S. Educational Amendments, was passed in 1972. This federal legislation prohibited sex discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funds and opened the doors for drastically increased support for and participation in girls and women's sports in high schools and colleges in the U.S. When President Nixon signed the act about 31,000 women were involved in college sports; about 817,073 girls participated in high school sports; spending on athletic scholarships for women was less than $100,000; and the average number of women's teams at a college was 2.1. This was an important time for visibility of girls and women in sport. In 1972 Billie Jean King became Sports Illustrated's first "Sportswoman of the year". She was a true pioneer and brought significant attention to women's athletic abilities during a much-publicized moment in 1973. She won the "battle-of-the-sexes" tennis match against Bobby Riggs in front of more than 30,000 people and a world-wide TV audience of more than 50 million. This demonstration inspired many young girls to get involved in tennis and other competitive sports. Billie Jean King also become an important and outspoken advocate about homophobia in sport. Title IX legislation went into effect on June 21, 1975 and schools slowly initiated changes to comply with its requirements.
In addition to the advances initiated by Title IX the Olympics and the growing media coverage of the athletes also contributed to a growing number of girls participating in organized athletics. In 1976 Dorothy Hamill captured a figure skating gold medal at the Innsbruck Olympics and the public's imagination. Her bobbed haircut created an international fad for the style and a popular doll made in her image was available in 1977. By 1978, 1.6 million American high school girls are taking part in interscholastic sports.
In 1984 Nawal El Moutawakel won gold in the 400-meter hurdles at the Los Angeles Olympic Games. She was the first woman from an Islamic nation to win an Olympic medal and the first Moroccan of either sex to win the gold. During this same Olympics, 16 year old Mary Lou Retton, inspired by Nadia Comeneci's perfect performance in 1976, won a gold medal in gymnastics. She became the first female to appear on the box of Wheaties cereal. Wheaties had branded itself over the years as the "breakfast of champions" with a succession of male athletes featured on the box. This started the trend of paying female athletes to endorse products (previously only endorsed by men) which is now a significant source of income for many female athletes.
By 1990, the number of women playing college sports jumped to 160,000. This decade marked the boom of girls' participation in sports due to some significant media events later in the decade. An important one to note is the 1995 NIKE campaign titled "If You Let Me Play" which featured clips of girls' talking about the benefits of participation in sports. Nike's aggressive advertising towards girls and women provided important support for emerging female sports leagues. In 1996 the Women's National Basketball Association was formed following the US gold medal at the Atlanta Olympics. The endorsement of major corporations such as the NBA, broadcasters NBC, ESPN and Lifetime, and other companies like Nike and Adidas are credited with the enduring success of this league.
Another Olympic moment was crucial in the increased participation by girls in another sport: ice hockey. In 1998 Women's ice hockey was first played at the Olympics in Nagano, Japan and the U.S. beat Canada in the gold medal game. Since 1997, USA hockey has reported a 400 percent growth in women's hockey with the largest growth being in girls under 10. The following year, Women's world cup soccer generated a media explosion when team USA won the world cup in a shoot out and Brandi Chastain took off her jersey in celebration of the game-winning goal. The photo of her wearing her Nike sports bra made the cover of Time, Newsweek, and Sports Illustrated. This extensive media coverage of the women's team success and Chastain's celebration resulted in an explosion of girls playing soccer. Currently 40% of the players registered in American Youth Soccer Organization leagues are girls.
The new millennium has marked the emergence of female athletes in popular culture films that also contributes to more girls engaging in athletic activities. Films such as Bring It On (2000), Girlfight (2000), Love & Basketball (2000), Bend It Like Beckham (2002), Blue Crush (2002), and Stick It (2006) demonstrate female leads excelling in various sports. As demosntrated in several of these films, many female athletes tend to be hypersexualized by the media in order to market the sport, and this is an ongoing battle that female athletes grapple with: do I allow myself to be sexualized to promote my sport? By engaging in these photo shoots and publicity opportunities will this garner more interest in women's athletics? Will the money I earn allow me to train more and stay focused on my goals? Many athletes believe the answer to these questions is "yes" so they participate in this media marketing game. This is problematic as it continues to equate women's worth with their heterosexual desirability, however it does not diminish the powerful impacts that sports participation can have on developing young girls' self-esteem, self-confidence, and the value of teamwork and good sportsmanship.
Although there are other negative impacts students can experience on sports teams due to hazing rituals, homophobic harassment, and exclusion, we need to continue supporting respectful and inclusive youth involvement in sport. With the new economic data of these positive benefits, youth advocates, coaches, educators, and researchers need to continue working to make teams and athletic associations more inclusive and supportive of all athletes from all gender expressions and sexual orientations. This is an important service offered by educational institutions that needs to continue to evolve. All children would benefit.
Additional reading:
It Takes a Team! (a program that recently lost its funding - but still offers great resources on building inclusive team environments - established by Pat Griffin)
Meyer, E. (2008) Sport. In Mitchell & Leach, eds. Girl Culture: An Encyclopedia.
Boutilier, M. & San Giovanni, L. (1983) The Sporting Woman. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
